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«План-конспект урока: Монголо-татарское нашествие»
Контрольная работа № 2 Грамматический материал
Повторение: видо-временные формы глагола. Времена группы Continuous, времена группыIndefinite, времена группыPerfectдействительного и страдательного залога.
Модальные глаголы – это глаголы, передающие отношение к действию, а не само действие.
Глагол can«может», «умеет» обозначает возможность сделать что-либо в силу:
1) физической возможности;
2) наличия соответствующих знаний, умений, навыков;
3) обстоятельств.
I/ You/ Не/ She/ It/ We/ They + can + глагол без частицы to
Отрицательная форма: cannot = can't
Эквивалент глагола can— tobeable+ to+ глагол имеет смысл «быть в состоянии сделать что-либо в отдельно взятом случае», а также употребляется для выражения возможности и умения совершить какие-либо действия.
Глагол mayвыражает:
1) предположение о совершении действия в настоящем или будущем и переводится «может быть», «возможно», «может»;
2) разрешение выполнить действие в настоящем или будущем и переводится «можно», «может». I/ You/ Не/ She/ It/ We/ They + may + глагол без частицы to
Отрицательная форма: may not
Глагол must«должен» выражает:
1) необходимость сделать что-либо в силу обстоятельств;
2) обязанность, долг сделать что-либо;
3) приказ;
4) настоятельный совет.
I/ You/ Не/ She/ It/ We/ They + must+ глагол без частицы to
Отрицательная форма: mustnot = mustn’t
Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты со значением «должен»
Глагол
Значение
Перевод
must/have to
необходимость совершить действие в силу внешних обстоятельств
должен, вынужден
be to
необходимость совершить действие в связи с предварительной договоренностью или имеющимися планами
должен, обязан
should
ought to
совет, рекомендация
следует, должен
Тренировочные упражнения
1. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы.
1. Prices can be increased by the government next year.
2. Letters must be sent to our partners at once.
3. Does the work have to be done today?
4. These papers should not be translated now.
5. The economic independence of the country could not be won at the same time as political independence.
6. Necessities didn’t have to be bought last week.
7. More money should be spent on ecology.
8. Inflation’s impact on an economy is various and can be simultaneously positive and negative.
9. Low or moderate inflation may be attributed to fluctuations in real demand for goods and services.
10. When gold was used as currency, the government could collect gold coins, melt them down, mix them with other metals such as silver, copper and reissue them at the same nominal value.
11. An increase in the money supply may be called monetary inflation.
12. Products may be compared on price, style, quality, and other characteristics.
13. Any company that has market power can engage in price discrimination.
14. A company must have some degree of market power to practice price discrimination.
15. There are many ways in which a business may be owned under the legal system of England and Wales.
16. The ownership method alters the rules under which the company must be administered.
17. Sole traders are able to control the business.
18. Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks in Britain were able to issue their own banknotes.
2. Замените слова в скобках на модальные глаголы сап, could, must, should, havetoили betoв нужной форме.
1. Today they (должны будут) prepare the document for tomorrow's meeting.
2. In the late 1940s, the Japanese government (могло) maintain only a very low level of living for the most part of population. However, the country (смогла) develop its industry by introduction of new technologies.
3. The country did not harvest enough crops last year, so it (была вынуждена) import additional foodstuffs.
4. Some small European industrialized countries (могут) provide large credits for developing countries.
5. Some economists think that such rapidly developing Asian countries as China and Taiwan (смогут) overtake the USA in high-tech in future.
6. Nowadays some goods manufactured in developing countries (могут) compete successfully in the world market.
7. The scientists (следует) study better how people's activities influence the earth's climate and ecology.
8. Belgium (вынуждена была) specialize only in some manufactured goods, for example, in cars.
9. Early in the 20th century, developing countries (не могли) enter the world market as there were strong trade barriers.
10. A small nation (недолжна) produce all manufactured goods as it (может) import them at a lower price from other countries.
Раздел II Причастия. Функции причастия в предложении
Формы причастий
Active
Passive
Present
Participle I
imposing
being imposed
Past
Participle II
–
imposed
Perfect
Participle
having imposed
having been imposed
Функции причастий в предложении
Participle I
Participle II
Attribute (Определение)
1. The world’s population is suffering from increasing pollution of the environment. – Населениемирастрадаетотвозрастающегозагрязненияокружающейсреды.
2. Consumers representing households spend their income to buy goods and services. – Потребители, представляющиеотдельныесемьи, тратятсвойдоходнапокупкутоваровиуслуг.
1. The goods produced at this plant are exported to Australia. – Товары, производимыенаэтомзаводе, экспортируютсявАвстралию.
2. An increased consumption of goods and services resulted from the rise of real income. – Увеличениепотреблениятоваровиуслугбылообусловленоростомреальныхдоходов.
3. The entire quantity produce does not have to be sold at once. – Всепроизведенноеколичествотоваровнеследуетпродаватьсразуже.
Adverbial Modifier (Обстоятельство)
1. Speaking about the developing countries don’t forget about their natural resources. – Говоряоразвивающихсястранах, незабывайтеобихприродныхресурсах.
2. Don’t forget about their natural resources speaking about the developing countries. – Незабывайтеобихприродныхресурсах, когдаговоритеоразвивающихсястранах.
3. When speaking about the developing countries don’t forget about their natural resources. – Когдаговоритеоразвивающихсястранах, незабывайтеоихприродныхресурсах.
Part of the Predicate
(Частьсказуемого)
1. Developed countries are giving economic assistance to developing countries. – Развитыестраныоказываютэкономическуюпомощьразвивающимсястранам.
1. Russia’s trade with Great Britain is basedon long-term agreements. – Торговые отношения России с Великобританией основываются на долгосрочных соглашениях.
2. They have concluded a long-term contract. – Онизаключилидолгосрочныйконтракт.
Тренировочные упражнения
1. Образуйте причастие 1 и причастие 2 от следующих глаголов.
To work, to obtain, to invite, to join, to change, to supply, to take, to make, to solve, to build, to give, to show, to bring, to do, to choose, to buy, to sell.
2. Определите форму и функцию причастия Iв предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
1. A country wishing to limit its population may discourage immigration and encourage emigration.
2. The people forming a company are required to submit several documents to the Central Office.
3. Loan capital is more appropriate to firms operating in stable markets.
4. With increasing numbers entering the working population, expanding industries will have little trouble in recruiting labour.
5. Having learnt the first law of supply and demand (i.e. more is demanded at lower prices), many students then automatically associate an increase in price with a fall in the quantity demanded and vise verse.
6. Having been repaired, the device began working much better.
3. Определите функцию причастия IIв предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
1. The quantity of labour derived from a given stock of population depends on several factors.
2. Put simply, a business process is the set of activities performed to serve a customer.
3. The information obtained is very valuable.
4. The house restored by the Johnsons is quite unusual.
5. The decision taken at the management meeting is very important.
6. None of the people invited to the party can come.
7. The money stolen in the robbery was never found.
8. Most of the goods made in this factory are exported.
9. Based on that idea the companies joined forces to challenge international competition.
10. Increased motivation occurs when work meets the needs of individuals.
4. Определите форму и функцию причастий в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
1. Exports are goods and services sold to other courtiers.
2. In free market economies changes in price are never results of regulations imposed by government.
3. Improved training of middle managers helped.
4. Imposing some restrictions on food prices, governments make it possible for all the people to buy enough food.
5. Having received the information required, the sellers send the buyers their offer.
6. Based on that idea the companies joined forces to challenge international competition.
7. Giving advertisements through this agency the company hoped to obtain better candidates for its parent group.
8. When controlling, managers evaluate how well company’s objectives are being met.
9. Being not profitable this product needs to be developed.
10. Replacing him or her means that the company has permanently lost a valuable human asset.
11. An increase in the general level of prices implies a decrease in the purchasing power of the currency.
12. Banking in Scotland has a long history beginning with the creation of the Bank of Scotland in Edinburgh in 1695.
13. Many trading techniques used by expert investors are built around options.
14. Having been experienced in creating such projects, he didn’t have any difficulty with the new one.
Раздел III Независимый причастный оборот
Независимый причастный оборот в начале предложения
Независимый причастный оборот в конце предложения
Thevalueofthedamagedgoodshavingbeencalculated, they found that the loss amounted to $150 000. – После того, как была подсчитана стоимость испорченных товаров, выяснилось, что потери составляют 150 000 долларов.
TheindustrialNorthofEnglandheavilysufferedduringtheGreatDepression, unemploymentbeinghighandincomelow. – Промышленный север Англии сильно пострадал во время великой депрессии, причем безработица была высокой, а доходы низкими.
Тренировочные упражнения
1. Найдите в предложениях независимый причастный оборот (theAbsoluteParticipialConstruction). Предложенияпереведитенарусскийязык.
1. Other things being equal, an increase in wage rates will increase the cost of labour relative to the cost of the other products.
2. The production of the Liberty ships showed similar effects, the first taking many months to build and the last only three days.
3. In order to simplify the analysis we can consider two firms, one being representative of high-cost producers and the other of low-cost producers.
4. Most industries make use of a variety of machines, each machine carrying out a different operation.
5. The selling price must relate to the production cost, which in turn, depends on the quantity sold, this quantity being dependent upon the sales price.
6. It being too late, they decided to stop working.
7. Other things being equal, the demand for a commodity will tend to vary directly as the price of its substitute.
8. The goods having been loaded, the dockworkers left the port.
Раздел IV Инфинитив. Функции инфинитива в предложении
Формы инфинитива
Active
Passive
Indefinite
to do
to open
to be done
to be opened
Continuous
to be doing
to be opening
–
–
Perfect
to have done
to have opened
to have been done
to have been opened
Perfect Continuous
to have been doing
to have been opening
–
–
Употребление инфинитива без частицы “to”
После модальных глаголов.
Искл. глагол ought
We canmanageit. – Он может справиться с этим.
После вспомогательных глаголов.
I shall do it at once. – Ямогусделатьэтосразуже.
We don’t go to the Institute on Sunday. – Мынеучимсяввоскресенье.
После глагола to let (позволять).
Let me help you with the translation. – Разрешитепомочьвамспереводом.
После глаголов чувственного восприятия (например, to see, to watch, to feel, t hear), если они не стоят в страдательном залоге.
We heard her sing a song. – Мыуслышали, каконапоетпесню.
BUT: She was heard to sing a song. – Услышали, каконапоетпесню.
После глагола to make (в значении заставлять), если он не стоит в страдательном залоге).
They mademe wait. – Они заставили меня подождать.
BUT: She was made to pay back the money. – Еезаставиливернутьденьги.
После глагола to help, если он не стоит в страдательном залоге.
She helped the child lift the box. – Онапомогларебенкуподнятькоробку.
BUT: He was helped to lift the box. – Емупомоглиподнятькоробку.
После конструкций had better (следовало бы) и would rather (предпочел бы).
I would rather go alone. – Я предпочел бы пойти один.
После why и why not в вопросе.
Why pay more at other shops? We have the lowest prices. – Зачем платить больше в других магазинах? У нас самые низкие цены.
Функции инфинитива в предложении
Subject
Подлежащее
1. It is important to learn foreign languages nowadays. – Важновнастоящеевремяизучатьиностранныеязыки.
2. To learn foreign languages is very important for students of Economics. – Изучатьиностранныеязыки – оченьважнодлястудентовэкономическихспециальностей.
Part of the Predicate
Частьсказуемого
1. The point is to achieve the aim. – Нашазадача – достигнутьцели.
2. High inflation may lead to shortages of goods. – Высокаяинфляцияможетпривестикдефицитутоваров.
3. When did the Industrial Revolution begin? – Когданачаласьпромышленнаяреволюция?
4. He began to study Economics many years ago. – Он начал изучать экономику много лет назад.
Object
Дополнение
1. The employers seek to hold wages down as much as possible. – Работодателистараютсяснижатьзаработнуюплатукакможнобольше.
Attribute
Определение
1. Automation is one of the means toincreaseproductivity. – Автоматизация – один из способов увеличения производительности.
2. Great Britain was the first country tousemachinery in large scale. – Великобритания была первой страной, которая начала широко использовать машины.
Adverbial Modifier
Обстоятельство
1. The owners of enterprises use their profits tomakemore profits. – Владельцы предприятий используют прибыль, чтобы получать еще больше прибыли.
2. Tomakemore profits, the owners of enterprises decrease workers’ wages. – Чтобы получить больше прибыли, владельцы предприятий снижают заработную плату.
3. In order to increase people’s living standards it is necessary to use progressive forms of production.
Чтобы повысить уровень жизни людей, необходимо использовать прогрессивные формы производства.
4. The company is too small to develop new products.
Компания слишком мала, чтобы разрабатывать новые продукты.
5.Our company is strong enough to develop new products.
Компания достаточно сильная, чтобы разрабатывать новые продукты.
Тренировочные упражнения
1. Употребите инфинитив с частицей “to” или без нее.
1. The manager asked the book-keeper … let him … look through documents.
2. You must … make him … practice an hour a day.
3. She was made … repeat her evidence.
4. He is not sure that it can … be done, but he is willing … try.
5. Let me … help you with your work.
6. The director asked me … read the letter carefully and … write an answer.
7. You ought … take care of your health.
8. I looked for the balance sheet everywhere but could not … find it.
9. He was seen … leave the office.
10. You had better … go there at once.
11. I would rather not … tell them about it.
2. Определите функцию инфинитива в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
1. The buyers want to know our terms of payment.
2. This is for you to decide.
3. The plan of our work will be discussed at the meeting to be held at the end of May.
4. To walk in Hyde Park was a pleasure.
5. The chief manager remembered to have been told a lot about Mr. Smith.
6. He wants to be sent to London to a conference.
7. To advertise in magazines is very expensive.
8. To see is to believe.
9. In order to get high profits, the company must have a very stable position in the market.
10. To intervene in an economy means to control it.
11. The enterprise should change its production cycle to lower costs.
12. The GDP is very important characteristic to be considered in determining living standards.
13. The average wage in this industry is too low to attract qualified workers.
14. Stock markets have developed to make the buying and selling of securities easier.
15. The main function of a Stock Exchange is to provide services and market where investors can buy and sell bonds, shares and other securities.
16. The European Union undertakes various initiatives to coordinate activities of the member states.
Раздел V
Инфинитивные обороты
Объектный инфинитивный оборот (The Complex Object)
Структура предложения с объектным инфинитивным оборотом
Английское предложение
Русский эквивалент
Подлежащее + сказуемое + сложное дополнение (существительное в общем падеже или местоимение в объектном падеже + инфинитив)
We believe his experiment to be of great importance.
Мы полагаем, что его эксперимент очень важен.
Субъектный инфинитивный оборот (The Complex Subject)
Структура предложения с субъектным инфинитивным оборотом
Английское предложение
Русский эквивалент
Существительное в общем падеже или местоимение в именительном падеже (первая часть инфинитивного оборота) + глагол-сказуемое + инфинитив (вторая часть инфинитивного оборота)
The new product is reported to be in great demand.
Сообщают, что новый продукт пользуется большим спросом.
Тренировочные упражнения
1. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на конструкцию «сложноедополнение» (the Complex Object).
1. We expect him to solve this problem.
2. I don’t consider him to be a good manager.
3. I know her to have graduated the university three years ago.
4. The manager considers the results to be unsatisfactory.
5. I want him to leave.
6. We expect John to be elected.
7. We want them to introduce the changes as soon as possible.
8. We expect interest rates to rise next week.
9. The scientists expect this effect to be relatively small.
2. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на конструкцию «сложноеподлежащее» (the Complex Subject).
a)
1. The new manager is said to work 12 hours a day.
2. The free market economy is said to be more flexible.
3. Three people are reported to have been injured in the explosion.
4. The strike is expected to end soon.
5. Consumers are assumed to wish to maximize their utility of satisfaction.
6. Firms are assumed to maximize their short-run profit.
7. The train was supposed to arrive at 7 o’clock but it was half an hour late.
8. Many people are reported to be homeless after the floods.
9. The building is reported to have been damaged by fire.
10. The company is said to be losing a lot of money.
11. Goods which are close substitutes for one another are said to be in competitive demand.
12. A good is said to be in composite demand then it is demanded for several different uses.
13. Consumers are assumed to maximize the satisfaction derived from the goods and services that they buy.
14. Firms are assumed to know what quantity of each product they would sell.
15. Consumers are assumed to be aware of all the goods and services they could buy.
16. The total value of international movements of capital is thought to be at least ten times the value of world trade in goods and services.
17. A small firm is likely to be specializing in one product.
18. The lager firm is likely to have a diversified market structure.
19. An increase in the output of capital goods is likely to mean that the current consumption of goods and services is less than it might have been.
b)
1. Ownership of labour is likely to be highly unpopular politically.
2. The limit to output is most likely to be determined by the quantity of capital inputs.
3. The larger firm is more likely to be able to employ buyers who are experienced in buying particular products.
4. The reason for this is that rival suppliers are likely to maintain their prices in the hope of attracting customers from the higher-price firm.
5. Price is likely to be held stable during the pricing season over quite a wide range of output, both greater and less than expected.
6. Price reductions are most likely to occur if they can be concealed from competitors.
7. If the original profit margin was not considered to be adequate and demand is less than expected, the response is likely to be as before.
8. But when demand turns out to be greater than expected suppliers are likely to take the opportunity to improve their profit margins.
9. Firms are likely to be most confident about rivals’ responses, i.e. to be able to exercise control over price, in highly concentrated industries.
10. Each of these different machines is likely to have a different capacity.
11. The management seems to be moving in the right direction.
12. The two sides appear to have solved the problem.
13. Since that time the market share of these larger companies does not seem to have increased.
14. These studies seem to indicate that the size structure of plants in British industry is such that they are able to take advantage of such scale economies as are available.
15. Many mergers appear to have been motivated by a desire to increase market power rather than by a desire to increase efficiency.
16. The poor performance of the collective farms in the USSR in the early years of centralization appears to have been an important factor in the decision to maintain some private ownership of land.
3. Определитетипинфинитивногооборота(the Complex Subject or the Complex Object). Предложенияпереведитенарусскийязык.
1. Economists thought prices for food to have been increased by producers.
2. Prices for food are likely to have been decreased due to the improvement of technology.
3. Productive costs are sure to influence the price of goods.
4. Managers expect decreased sales to result in poor economic position of the firm.
5. The Intel Corporation is sure to be the biggest producer of microchips.
6. The seller is said to be a monopolist in this industry.
7. Economists consider local newspapers to be the best market for second-hand goods.
8. Some economists expected means of production to be controlled by the state.
9. The inflation rate was reported to have increased greatly.
10. He proved to be one of the best managers of our firm.
11. The EU economy is expected to grow further over the next decade as more countries join the union.
Образцы выполнения упражнений
Образец выполнения упр. 2
International trade has existed for thousands of years long before there were nations with boundaries.
has existed – Present Perfect Active Voice от глагола to exist
were – Past Indefinite Active Voice от глагола to be
Международная торговля существовала за долго до того, как появились страны и границы.
Образецвыполненияупр. 3
Competition can force firms to become more efficient.
Конкуренция может заставить фирмы стать более эффективными.
Образецвыполненияупр. 4
The government is trying to increase exports of manufactured goods, but competition in international markets continues to be severe.
trying – Participle I, часть сказуемого
manufactured – Participle II,определение
Правительство старается увеличить экспорт промышленных товаров, но конкуренция в международной торговле остается жесткой.
Образецвыполненияупр. 5
The production process was automized last year, the output rising by 20 per cent.
Производственный процесс был автоматизирован в прошлом году, при этом объем производства возрос на 20 процентов.
All the problems having been solved, they went home.
После того как все проблемы были решены, мы пошли домой.
Образецвыполненияупр. 6
The shopping malls have grown to become one of the largest retail establishments in the United States.
tobecome – часть сказуемого
Торговые центры выросли и стали одними из крупнейших розничных образований в США.
To measure the role of intermediates in trade, we calculate an index of specialization.
tomeasure – обстоятельство
Чтобы измерить роль посредников в торговле, мы рассчитываем индекс специализации.
Образецвыполненияупр. 7
I don’t consider him to be a potential exporter. – C.O.
Я не считаю, что он является потенциальным экспортером.
Traditional joint stock companies are sure to exist in these areas. – C.S.
Безусловно, компании с ограниченной ответственностью существуют в данных регионах.
Вариант 1 The Theoretical Basis of a Study of International Economic Relations
The theoretical basis of a study of international economic relations in its modern form has been formed as a result of a long and difficult process, full of successes but, nevertheless, with important mistakes.
The early roots have been found, perhaps, in Antic Greece in the works of Aristotel, Platon and Xenophon. In general, the antic philosophers opposed to the big commerce and supported the idea of a closed domestic economy. The closed character of the production of a self-supply type dominated from the antiquity up to 15th century and gave no incentives for the development of any profound and constant studies on international trade. In these conditions the theorists of antiquity and Middle Ages exaggerated the role of production (especially agricultural) and pleaded against the "art of making money".
At the dawn of the Modern Age (16th century) there appeared the first trials of more systematic analyses of the international economic relations.
After mercantilists had developed their theory during the period of the downfall of feudalism and the transition to capitalism, they explained integrally the principles of international trade in a paradigm of the analysis of economic reality.
Perhaps, the field of international trade was first closely studied in private or governmental employment as a part of an effort to increase the wealth and the power of the nation. This body of doctrines later was named by Adam Smith the "mercantile system" or "mercantilism". It insisted that the acquisition of wealth, particularly wealth in the form of gold, had a paramount importance for national policy. Mercantilists never explained adequately why the pursuit of gold had deserved such a high priority in their economic plans.
The mercantilists held that economic policy should be nationalistic and had to secure the wealth and power of the state. This concept was based on the conviction that national interests are inevitably in conflict - that one nation can increase its trade only at the expense of other nations. The foreign trade was reduced to the maximum exports of goods for gold and silver and some exports of raw materials and precious metals. The idea was also that the state should provide its citizens with a monopoly of the resources and trade outlets of its colonies. A typical illustration of the mercantilist spirit is the famous English Navigation Act of 1651, which had to prohibit the import of goods of non-European origin. This law lingeredon until 1849.
I. Прочитайте текст (без словаря).
II. Перепишите предложения. Определите видовременную форму глаголов. Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. After mercantilists had developed their theory, they explained integrally the principles of international trade.
2. Mercantilists never explained adequately why the pursuit of gold had deserved such a high priority in their economic plans.
3. The early roots of international economic relations have been found in Antic Greece in the works of Aristotel, Platon and Xenophon.
4. The mercantile theory had been developed during the period of the downfall of feudalism and the transition to capitalism.
5. The field of international trade was first closely studied as a part of an effort to increase the wealth and the power of the nation.
6. The foreign trade was reduced to the maximum exports of goods for gold and silver.
III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы.
1. The state should provide its citizens with a monopoly of the resources and trade outlets of its colonies.
2 One nation can increase its trade only at the expense of other nations.
3. The famous English Navigation Act of 1651 had to prohibit the import of goods of non-European origin.
IV. Найдите в предложениях причастия. Определите функцию причастия в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
In 2005 Russia created a rival trade bloc to the EU, open to any previous USSR state, including both the European and Asian states.
Industrialization, advanced in technology transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system.
Having increased international trade the country became very important in the world market.
V. Найдите в предложениях независимый причастный оборот. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
1. Other things being equal, the internal activities of the international corporation will tend to vary directly as its finances.
2. Corporation being able to sell stock, its members are stockholders.
3. The joint stock company is one of financing models that allow companies to raise large amounts of capital, the other two being guilds and state regulated companies.
4. Limited liability companies are the companies that are free from double taxation, state intervention, dividends falling according to company’s debts and obligations.
VI. Найдите в предложениях инфинитивы. Определите функцию инфинитива в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic industries.
To ensure smooth international transactions it is important to take a proactive rather than reactive approach.
The main purpose of several different models of international trade is to predict patterns of trade and to analyze the effects of trade policies such as tariffs.
VII. Найдите в предложениях инфинитивные обороты. Определите тип инфинитивного оборота. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
Trade is believed to have taken place throughout much of recorded human history.
The manager expects capital to become available for investment in projects of a larger size.
Several different models have been proposed to predict patterns of trade and to analyze the effects of trade policies such as tariffs.
VIII. Письменно переведите текст на русский язык.
IX. Письменно ответьте на вопросы по тексту.
1. What antic philosophers first studied international economic relations and trade?
2. When did the first trials of more systematic analysis of the international trade appeared?
3. Who explained the principles of the international trade?
4. What were the main ideas of the "mercantile system"?
5. What is the typical example of the mercantilist spirit?
Вариант 2 International trade
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. In most countries, it represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP). While international trade has been present throughout much of history, its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increase in international trade has been crucial to the continuance of globalization. International trade is a major source of economic revenue for any nation that is considered a world power. Without international trade, nations will be limited to the goods and services which are produced within their own borders.
International trade is in principle not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties which are involved in a trade does not change fundamentally according to whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs due to border delays and costs which are associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or a different culture.
Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of production such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labor or other factors of production. Then trade in good and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production. Instead of the import of the factor of production a country can import goods that make intensive use of the factor of production and are thus embodying the respective factor. An example is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of the import of Chinese labor the United States is importing goods from China that have been produced with Chinese labor.
International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch of international economics. The risks that exist in international trade are to be divided into two major groups: Economic risks (such as risk of insolvency of the buyer, risk of protracted default - the failure of the buyer to pay the amount due within six months after the due date, risk of non-acceptance) and Political risks (for example, risk of cancellation or non-renewal of export or import licences, war risks, risk of expropriation or confiscation of the importer's company, risk of the imposition of an import ban after the shipment of the goods, transfer risk - imposition of exchange controls by the importer's country or foreign currency shortages and others).
I. Прочитайте текст (без словаря).
II. Перепишите предложения. Определите видовременную форму глаголов. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.
1. International trade has been present throughout much of history.
2. The United States is importing goods from China that have been produced with Chinese labor.
3. Increase in international trade has been crucial to the continuance of globalization.
4. Without international trade, nations will be limited to the goods and services which are produced within their own borders.
5. International trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services.
6. Some costs of international trade are associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or a different culture.
III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы.
1. The risks in international trade are to be divided into two major groups: Economic risks and Political risks.
2. Trade in goods and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production.
3. Instead of the import of the factor of production a country can import goods that make intensive use of the factor of production.
IV. Найдите в предложениях причастия. Определите функцию причастия в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
Other developing regions of the world such as India and China have been more attractive to companies looking to build a new factory or invest in a local enterprise.
Having lived there for such a long time, he didn't want to move to another town.
International trade not only results in increased efficiency but also allows countries to participate in a global economy, encouraging the opportunity of foreign direct investment.
V. Найдите в предложениях независимый причастный оборот. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
1. Trade growing, there are more disadvantages than advantages in the process of globalizing.
2. The risk of trade lowering, the profits of company increase.
3. Theory would suggest that sound property rights are a foundation of any country’s investment climate, and, other things being equal, stronger rights would lower risk and entice more investment at the margin.
4. The incorporation of a company requires a number of documents, memorandum of association, articles of association, Form 10 and Form 12 being the principle documents.
VI. Найдите в предложениях инфинитивы. Определите функцию инфинитива в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
Requests from a foreign country or business partner to use unethical business practices in order to do business with them, or bribery and corruption can also be problems.
The Heckscher-Ohlin model is an attempt to produce an alternative to the Ricardian model of basic comparative advantage.
A customer may have to pay more if the seller determines that he or she is willing to.
VII. Найдите в предложениях инфинитивные обороты. Определите тип инфинитивного оборота. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
Three types of agreements were intended to stabilize the region after 1989.
The managers know the economic benefits of distributions of profits to influence members’ decision to invest.
Trade sanctions against a specific country are said not to be imposed without serious reasons.
VIII. Письменно переведите текст на русский язык.
IX. Письменно ответьте на вопросы по тексту.
What is international trade?
What influences international trade?
What are the main differences between international trade and domestic trade?
What are the main risks of international trade?
Вариант 3 Models of International Trade
Several different models have proposed some patterns in analysis of trade and the effects of trade policies such as tariffs.
Ricardian model
The Ricardian model focuses on comparative advantage and is perhaps the most important concept in international tradetheory. In a Ricardian model, countries specialize in production of what they produce best. Unlike other models, the Ricardian framework predicts that countries have to specialize instead of production of a broad array of goods. Also, the Ricardian model does not directly consider factor endowments, such as the relative amounts of labor and capital within a country.
Heckscher-Ohlin model
The Heckscher-Ohlin model has been produced as an alternative to the Ricardian model of basic comparative advantage. Despite its greater complexity it has not been much more accurate in its predictions. However from a theoretical point of view it has provided an elegant solution as it incorporated the neoclassical price mechanism into international trade theory.
The theory argues that the pattern of international trade is determined by differences in factorendowments. It predicts that countries will export those goods that make intensive use of locally abundant factors and will import goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce. Empirical problems with the H-O model were exposed in empirical tests by Wassily Leontief who had found that the United States exported labor intensive goods in spite of a capital abundance.
Specific factors model
In this model, labour mobility between industries is possible while capital is immobile between industries in the short-run. Thus, this model can be interpreted as a 'short run' version of the Heckscher-Ohlin model. The theory suggests that in case of an increase in the price of a good, the owners of the factor of production specific to that good will be able to profit in real terms. This model is ideal for particular industries.
New Trade Theory
New Trade theory explains several facts about trade, which the two main models above have difficulty with. These include the fact that most trade is to be done between countries with similar factor endowment and productivity levels, and the large amount of multinational production (i.e., foreign direct investment). In one example of this framework, the economy exhibits monopolistic competition.
Gravity model
The Gravity model of trade presents a more empirical analysis of trade rather than the more theoretical models above. The gravity model, in its basic form, predicts trade which is based on the distance between countries and the interaction of the countries' economic sizes. The model mimics the Newtonian law of gravity which also considers distance and physical size between two objects.
I. Прочитайте текст (без словаря).
II. Перепишите предложения. Определите видовременную форму глаголов. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.
1. The Heckscher-Ohlin model has not been much more accurate in its predictions.
2. However it has provided an elegant solution.
3. Wassily Leontief had found that the United States tended to export labor intensive goods.
4. The Heckscher-Ohlin model has been produced as an alternative to the Ricardian model.
5. Empirical problems with the Heckscher-Ohlin model were exposed in empirical tests.
6. The pattern of international trade is determined by differences in factorendowments.
III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы.
1. Specific factors model can be interpreted as a 'short run' version of the Heckscher-Ohlin model. 2. The owners of the factor of production will be able to profit in real terms. 3. Most trade is to be done between countries with similar factor endowment and productivity levels, and the large amount of multinational production
IV. Найдите в предложениях причастия. Определите функцию причастия в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
The increasing prevalence of international trade is usually called “globalization”.
Taking part in international trade one must consider various essential factors such as capital investment, trade treaties, etc. in order to be successful.
Having obtained necessary results, we stopped our experimental work.
V. Найдите в предложениях независимый причастный оборот. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
1. Corporations growing beyond national boundaries, power and influence of the process of globalizing increases.
2. The company having bad debts and obligations, bankruptcy may follow.
3. Ownership of stock has a number of privileges, with resolutions upon important decisions being the most attractive function.
4. The limited liability company has a number of advantages, with much less administrative paperwork and pass-through taxation being the most attractive advantages.
VI. Найдите в предложениях инфинитивы. Определите функцию инфинитива в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
In the years since the Second World War, controversial multilateral treaties like the GATT and World Trade Organization have attempted to create a globally regulated trade structure.
Trade sanctions against a specific country are sometimes imposed, in order to punish one country for some action.
Most-favored-nation liberalization, which creates more trade, is the fastest and most efficient way to increase intraregional trade.
VII. Найдите в предложениях инфинитивные обороты. Определите тип инфинитивного оборота. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
Agricultural lobbies were considered to be responsible for protectionist measures in agriculture.
Many businessmen want the liability of a partner to be significantly large.
Successful regional agreements are expected to increase trade between partners relative to those countries’ trade with the rest of the world.
VIII. Письменно переведите текст на русский язык.
IX. Письменно ответьте на вопросы по тексту.
What are the basic models of the International trade?
What is the idea of Ricardian model?
What solution of the International trade has H-O model provided?
What does Specific factors model suggest?
5. What factors about trade does New Trade Theory explain?
6. What is Gravity model based on?
Вариант 4 Regulation of International Trade
Traditionally trade has been regulated through bilateral treaties between two nations. For centuries under the belief in Mercantilism most nations have had high tariffs and many restrictions on international trade. In the 19th century, especially in the United Kingdom, a belief in free trade became paramount. In the years since the Second World War, controversial multilateral treaties like the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and World Trade Organization have attempted to create a global trade structure. These trade agreements have often resulted in protest and discontent with claims of unfair trade that is not mutually beneficial.
Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations, though they often engage in selective protectionism for those industries which are strategically important such as the protective tariffs in agriculture in the United States and Europe. The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were both strong advocates of free trade when they were economically dominant, today the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Japan are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries (such as India, China and Russia) are able nowadays to support free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves. As tariff levels fall there is also a great willingness to negotiate non tariff measures, which include foreign direct investment, procurement and trade facilitation.
Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism. This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services.
During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure which is to increase tariffs and to protect domestic industries. This occurred around the world during the Great Depression. Many economists have attempted to portray tariffs as the basic reason that had a serious impact on trade and deepened the depression.
The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 27 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) failed largely because of opposition from the populations of Latin American nations. Similar agreements have also failed in recent years.
I. Прочитайтетекст (безсловаря).
II. Перепишите предложения. Определите видовременную форму глаголов. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.
1. Tariffs had a serious impact on trade and deepened the depression.
2. Many economists have attempted to portray tariffs as the basic reason behind the collapse in world trade.
3. These trade agreements have often resulted in protest and discontent with claims of unfair trade.
4. Traditionally trade has been regulated through bilateral treaties between two nations.
5. The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level.
6. Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations.
III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы.
1. Many countries are able nowadays to support free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves.
2. The major international trade treaties allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services.
3. During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure which is to increase tariffs and to protect domestic industries.
IV. Найдите в предложениях причастия. Определите функцию причастия в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
In other cases, especially in the case of a nonprofit shop, the public donates goods to the shop to be sold.
The retailer decided to charge higher prices to some customers and lower prices to others.
Several agreements with WTO members have yet to be reported to the organization.
V. Найдите в предложениях независимый причастный оборот. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
1. Minimum share capital decreasing, advertisements offering any of its securities for sale to the public may follow.
2. The two principle models of companies were considered to be thejoint stock company and the public limited company, the limited liability company offering limited liability to its owners.
3. The richness of the model structure, however, requires that many key parameters be selected on the basis of an extensive literature search, with others being the result of a process of calibration to a single base- year observation.
4. The USA has a mixed economy, private businesses and government both playing important roles.
VI. Найдите в предложениях инфинитивы. Определите функцию инфинитива в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
World Trade Organization have attempted to create a global trade structure.
During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure which is to increase tariffs and to protect domestic industries.
Countries to participate in International trade are numerous.
VII. Найдите в предложениях инфинитивные обороты. Определите тип инфинитивного оборота. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
As we see, neither the EU nor the United States seem to be less disposed toward multilateral negotiations.
Economists consider international commercial treaties to regulate international trade.
These regulations are said to be more favorable.
VIII. Письменно переведите текст на русский язык.
IX. Письменно ответьте на вопросы по тексту.
1. What belief became paramount in the 19th century?
2. What treaties tried to create a global trade structure?
3. What nations supported free trade?
4. How is international trade regulated at the global level?
5. Why did most of the regional agreements on the establishment of the Free Trade Areas fail?
Вариант 5 World Trade
World trade growth had averaged 10.2 percent by 2004, and reflected rapid increases in industrial production and investment activity. The expansion in trade volumes in 2004 is observed in 2000 and can mirror the rapid recovery in industrial production that began in the second half of 2003 and continued into 2004. More than 20 percent of the increase in world merchandise trade volumes was represented by China.
Trade in raw materials and investment goods was particularly strong. Demand for raw materials was an important factor which had to speed the trade expansion in a number of developing countries. Fast-growing global investment expenditures were particularly important in spurring export demand in countries such as Germany and Japan that specialize in the fabrication of machinery and other physical capital.
As a whole, developing countries have grown their share in world markets by about 19 percent up from 19 to 23 percent since 2000. The improvement in the export share of low- and middle-income countries has been more modest (from 16 to 17 percent), although developing countries in the South Asia and Europe and Central Asia regions have increased their market shares considerably. Other regions either maintained their market share (the rest of the Eastern Asia and Pacific and the Middle East and North Africa) or lost market share (Latin America and the Caribbean).
Major imbalances in the world trading environment persisted during 2004 and continued to play a large role in 2005–06. The U.S. current account deficit reached 5.7 percent of GDP in the second quarter of 2004, as domestic production was exceeded by American consumption and investment volumes by a wide margin. The expansion in the trade deficit since the mid-1990s has been the main factor behind the rise in the U.S. current account deficit.
Failure to address the U.S. deficits could have significant impacts on developing countries, especially if that failure leads to an increase in protectionist behavior. This is especially relevant because the substantial improvements in living standards, wages, and incomes in many upper-lower and middle-income countries have been the result of expanding their world market share in manufactures. An increase in protectionism could halt these countries’ progress and deny other poor countries the same avenue to development. Moreover, a retreat from recent efforts to reduce trade barriers or a failure to make further progress – especially concerning agricultural subsidies – could have substantial negative consequences on many of the world’s poorest countries.
I. Прочитайте текст.
II.Перепишите предложения. Определите видовременную форму глаголов. Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. Developing countries have grown their share in world markets by about 19 percent up from 19 to 23 percent since 2000.
2. World trade growth had averaged 10.2 percent by 2004.
3. Major imbalances in the world trading environment persisted during 2004.
4. The expansion in the trade deficit has been the main factor behind the rise in the U.S. current account deficit.
5. The expansion in trade volumes in 2004 is observed in 2000.
6. Domestic production was exceeded by American consumption and investment volumes.
III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы.
1. An increase in protectionism could halt these countries’ progress and deny other poor countries the same avenue to development.
2. Demand for raw materials had to speed the trade expansion in a number of developing countries.
3. The expansion in trade volumes in 2004 can mirror the rapid recovery in industrial production.
IV. Найдите в предложениях причастия. Определите функцию причастия в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
The increasing prevalence of international trade is usually called “globalization”.
Taking part in international trade one must consider various essential factors such as capital investment, trade treaties, etc. in order to be successful.
Having obtained necessary results, we stopped our experimental work.
V. Найдите в предложениях независимый причастный оборот. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
1. Firm’s profit increasing, much attention must be paid to advertising.
2. Partners buying real estate and land, their debts and obligations increase.
3. Partnership having debts, bankruptcy may follow.
4. The firm has developed for three years, its profits and debts having always been available for public inspection.
VI. Найдите в предложениях инфинитивы. Определите функцию инфинитива в предложении. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
Fair trade involves transparent management and commercial relations to deal fairly and respectfully with trading partners.
Patterns of regional integration tend to confirm the view that usually trade has preceded trade agreements.
Fair trade relationships provide continuity, during which producers and their marketing organizations can improve their management skills and their access to new markets.
VII. Найдите в предложениях инфинитивные обороты. Определите тип инфинитивного оборота. Предложения переведите на русский язык.
The director is believed to manage the whole business successfully.
The director of oversea company considers the funds to be insufficient.
A partnership is said to be based upon a nominate contract between individuals who agree to carry on an enterprise, contribute to it, by combining property, knowledge or activities and to share its profit.
VIII. Письменно переведите текст на русский язык.
IX. Письменно ответьте на вопросы по тексту.
1. When did the rapid recovery in industrial production begin?
2. What was an important factor which sped the trade expansion in many countries?
3. In what countries was the improvement in the export share considerable?
4. What was the main factor of the US rise in the current account deficit?
5. What has been the result of expanding world market share in manufactures?
