Varieties of approaches in teaching foreign languages

32

Varieties of approaches in teaching

foreign languages

Contents

Introduction……………………………………………………….3

I The history of English Teaching Methodology………………....5

I.1. Ancient Times. Europe in Early Modern Times … ………...5

I.2. The 19th and Early to Mid-20th Century. The Grammar-Translation Method………………………………………………..6

I.3.Reforms………………………………………………………..6

I.4. Behaviorism and Language Teaching. The Mid- to Late-20th Century……………………………….……………………………7

II Varieties of approaches to FLT………………………….….….10

II.1.The Grammar Translation Method……………………………10

II.1.1.Overview………………………………………………...…..10

II.2. The Direct Method…………………………………………....13

II.2.1.Overview……………………………………………….…....13

II.3. The Audiolingual Method…………………………………….15

II.3.1. Overview…………………………………………..….…….15

II.4. Suggestopedia………………………………………………....21

II.4.1. Overview………………………………………………….…21

II.5. The Communicative Language Teaching Approach……….….24

II.5.1. Overview…………………………………………………….24

Conclusion…………………………………………………….…….29

Introduction

The theme of this course paper is called “The varieties of approaches in teaching foreign language”. This work will take a look at the approaches to the teaching of foreign languages. We chose this theme because it is necessary and very useful for every teacher to know the approaches of FLT and of course this theme is very interesting as we know more about the ways how to improve the teaching process and how to make it more productive. In this course paper we investigate the main points of given approaches and try to define the importance of everyone.

The object is “The theory of approaches”

The subject is “Varieties of approaches to foreign language teaching”

Objectives of the issue: 1) to investigate approaches

2) to compare approaches

Practical and theoretical value:

This course paper refers to the way teachers can focus the teaching of the foreign language in the classroom in such a way that students can learn in a conscious way, taking into account their real experiences. Here, the origin of different methods is clearly explained, as such as the role of the teacher and the students in every method in a Second Language class. The course paper also gives some examples of activities that can be developed in a class from various points of view.

This work is intended to be an introduction to approaches for teachers and teachers-in-training who want to provide opportunities in the classroom for their students to engage in real-life acquisition of the target language. Questions to be dealt with include what the role of approaches is, where the methods came from, and how teachers' and students' roles differ in different teaching approaches.

Methods of the issue:

• Comparison

• Confrontation

The base of the course work are the scientific works in the field of pedagogy of the most prominent scientists who devoted themselves in real earnest to the problem of teaching, such as Harmer, J. (2003) “Popular culture, methods, and context ELT”, Brown, H. Douglas (1994) “Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy”, Krashen, Stephen D. (1987) “Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition Prentice-Hall”.

During the practice at the university I taught on the first course. In the group there were 15 students and it was easy to use different methods of FLT. I tried to use them in combination and it was very productive.

The work consists of two chapters. In the first one we examine the history of English Teaching Methodology. The second one is called “Varieties of approaches to FLT”. In this chapter we analyze different approaches, examine their typical techniques, key features and objectives.

Chapter I The History of English Teaching Methodology

Language teaching has been around for many centuries, and over the centuries, it has changed. Various influences have affected language teaching. Reasons for learning language have been different in different periods. In some eras, languages were mainly taught for the purpose of reading. In others, it was taught mainly to people who needed to use it orally. These differences influenced how language was taught in various periods. Also, theories about the nature of language and the nature of learning have changed. However, many of the current issues in language teaching have been considered off and on throughout history.

I.1. Ancient Times

The history of the consideration of foreign language teaching goes back at least to the ancient Greeks. They were interested in what they could learn about the mind and the will through language learning. The Romans were probably the first to study a foreign language formally. They studied Greek, taught by Greek tutors and slaves. Their approach was less philosophical and more practical than that of the Greeks.

Europe in Early Modern Times

In Europe before the 16th century, much of the language teaching involved teaching Latin to priests. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, French was a lingua franca for speaking to foreigners. Members of the court spoke French, of course, but it was also a necessary language for travelers, traders, and soldiers. French was fairly widely taught during this period, and a study of the theoretical books and language textbooks from this period indicate that many of the same questions that are being considered today by language teachers were being considered then. These included questions about practice versus learning rules and formal study versus informal use.

The status of Latin changed during this period from a living language that learners needed to be able to read, write in, and speak, to a dead language which was studied as an intellectual exercise. The analysis of the grammar and rhetoric of Classical Latin became the model language teaching between the 17th and 19th centuries, a time when thought about language teaching crystallized in Europe. Emphasis was on learning grammar rules and vocabulary by rote, translations, and practice in writing sample sentences. The sentences that were translated or written by the students were examples of grammatical points and usually had little relationship to the real world. This method came to be known as the grammar-translation method. Though some people tried to challenge this type of language education, it was difficult to overcome the attitude that Classical Latin (and to a lesser extent Greek) was the most ideal language and the way it was taught was the model for the way language should be taught. When modern languages were taught as part of the curriculum, beginning in the 18th century, they were generally taught using the same method as Latin.

I.2. The 19th and Early to Mid-20th Century

The Grammar-Translation Method

The grammar-translation method was the dominant foreign language teaching method in Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s, and a version of it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world, even today. However, even as early as the mid-19th, theorists were beginning to question the principles behind the grammar-translation method. Changes were beginning to take place. There was a greater demand for ability to speak foreign languages, and various reformers began reconsidering the nature of language and of learning. Among these reformers were two Frenchmen, C. Marcel and F. Gouin, and an Englishman, T. Pendergast. Through their separate observations, they concluded that the way that children learned language was relevant to how adults should learn language. Marcel emphasized the importance of understanding meaning in language learning. Pendergast proposed the first structural syllabus. He proposed arranging grammatical structures so that the easiest were taught first. Gouin believed that children learned language through using language for a sequence of related actions. He emphasized presenting each item in context and using gestures to supplement verbal meaning.

Though the ideas of these and other reformers had some influence for a time, they did not become widespread or last long. They were outside of the established educational circles, and the networks of conferences and journals which exist today did not exist then to spread their ideas.

I.3. Reforms

However, in the late 1800s and early 1900s, linguists became interested in the problem of the best way to teach languages. These reformers, who included Henry Sweet of England, Wilhelm Vietor of Germany, and Paul Passy of France, believed that language teaching should be based on scientific knowledge about language, that it should begin with speaking and expand to other skills, that words and sentences should be presented in context, that grammar should be taught inductively, and that translation should, for the most part, be avoided. These ideas spread, and were consolidated in what became known as the Direct Method, the first of the "natural methods." The Direct Method became popular in language schools, but it was not very practical with larger classes or in public schools.

I.4. Behaviorism and Language Teaching

Developments in other fields have, at times, had an effect on language teaching. In the field of psychology, behaviorism has had a great effect on language teaching. Various scientists in the early to mid-1900s did experiments with animals, trying to understand how animals learned, and through animals, how humans learned.

One of the most famous of these scientists was Ivan Pavlov. His experiments showed that if he rang a bell before giving food to the dogs he was studying, when the dogs heard the bell, they would salivate, even before the food was presented to them. This is called a conditioned response. Pavlov believed that this indicated that this is how animals learned, even in the wild. Pavlov and other studying in fields of animal behavior (including John Watson and B.F. Skinner) came to believe that animal behavior was formed by a series of rewards or punishments. Skinner, in particular, promoted the idea that human behavior could be described using the same model.

In applying his principles to language, Skinner theorized that parents or other caretakers hear a child say something that sounds like a word in their language, they reward the child with praise and attention. The child repeats words and combinations of words that are praised and thus learns language.

Behaviorism, along with applied linguistics, which developed detailed descriptions of the differences between languages, had a great influence on language teaching. Theorists believed that languages were made up of a series of habits, and that if learners could develop all these habits, they would speak the language well. Also, they believed that a contrastive analysis of languages would be invaluable in teaching languages, because points in which the languages were similar would be easy for students, but points in which they were different would be difficult for students. From these theories arose the audio-lingual method. The audio-lingual method is based on using drills for the formation of good language habits. Students are given a stimulus, which they respond to. If their response is correct, it is rewarded, so the habit will be formed; if it is incorrect, it is corrected, so that it will be suppressed.

The Mid- to Late-20th Century

In the years following World War II, great changes took place, some of which would eventually influence language teaching and learning. Language diversity greatly increased, so that there were more languages to learn. Expansion of schooling meant that language learning was no longer the prerogative of the elite but something that was necessary for a widening range of people. More opportunities for international travel and business and international social and cultural exchanges increased the need for language learning. As a result, renewed attempts were made in the 1950s and 1960s to

1) use new technology (e.g., tape recorders, radios, TV, and computers) effectively in language teaching,

2) explore new educational patterns (e.g., bilingual education, individualized instruction, and immersion programs), and

3) establish methodological innovations (e.g., the audio-lingual method). However, the hoped-for increase in the effectiveness of language education did not materialize, and some of the theoretical underpinnings of the developments were called into question.

Beginning in the mid-1960s, there has been a variety of theoretical challenges to the audio-lingual method. Linguist Noam Chomsky challenged the behaviorist model of language learning. He proposed a theory called Transformational Generative Grammar, according to which learners do not acquire an endless list of rules but limited set of transformations which can be used over and over again. For example, a sentence is changed from an affirmative to a negative sentence by adding not and the auxiliary verb to, i.e., "I go to New York every week" would be changed to "I do not go to New York every week." With a fairly limited number of these transformations, according to Chomsky, language users can form an unlimited number of sentences.

Other theorists have also proposed ideas that have influenced language teaching. Stephen Krashen, for example, studied the way that children learn language and applied it to adult language learning. He proposed the Input Hypothesis, which states that language is acquired by using comprehensible input (the language that one hears in the environment) which is slightly beyond the learner's present proficiency. Learners use the comprehensible input to deduce rules. Krashen's views on language teaching have given rise to a number of changes in language teaching, including a de-emphasis on the teaching of grammatical rules and a greater emphasis on trying to teach language to adults in the way that children learn language. While Krashen's theories are not universally accepted, they have had an influence.

Developments in various directions have taken place since the early 1970s. There has been developments such as a great emphasis on individualized instruction, more humanistic approaches to language learning, a greater focus on the learner, and greater emphasis on development of communicate, as opposed to merely linguistic, competence. Some "new methods," including the Silent Way, Suggestopedia, and Community Language Learning, have gained followings, and these reflect some of the above trends. In addition, there has been a disillusionment with the whole methods debate, partly due to inconclusiveness of research on methods, and calls for a deeper understanding of the process of language learning itself. Finally, there has been a greater stress on authenticity in language learning, meaning that the activities involved in language learning reflect real-world uses of the language.

Chapter II Varieties of approaches to FLT

II.1. The Grammar Translation Method

II.1.1. Overview

Latin and Ancient Greek are known as "dead" languages, based on the fact that people no longer speak them for the purpose of interactive communication.  Yet they are still acknowledged as important languages to learn (especially Latin) for the purpose of gaining access to classical literature, and up until fairly recently, for the kinds of grammar training that led to the mental dexterity considered so important in any higher education study stream.

Latin has been studied for centuries, with the prime objectives of learning how to read classical Latin texts, understanding the fundamentals of grammar and translation, and gaining insights into some important foreign influences Latin has had on the development of other European languages.  The method used to teach it overwhelmingly bore those objectives in mind, and came to be known (appropriately!) as the Classical Method.  It is now more commonly known in Foreign Language Teaching circles as the Grammar Translation Method.

It is hard to decide which is more surprising - the fact that this method has survived right up until today (alongside a host of more modern and more "enlightened" methods), or the fact that what was essentially a method developed for the study of "dead" languages involving little or no spoken communication or listening comprehension is still used for the study of languages that are very much alive and require competence not only in terms of reading, writing and structure, but also speaking, listening and interactive communication.  How has such an archaic method, "remembered with distaste by thousands of school learners" (Richards and Rodgers, 1986) perservered?

It is worth looking at the objectives, features and typical techniques commonly associated with the Grammar Translation Method, in order to both understand how it works and why it has shown such tenacity as an acceptable (even recommended or respected) language teaching philosophy in many countries and institutions around the world.

Objectives

Most teachers who employ the Grammar Translation Method to teach English would probably tell you that (for their students at least) the most fundamental reason for learning the language is give learners access to English literature, develop their minds "mentally" through foreign language learning, and to build in them the kinds of grammar, reading, vocabulary and translation skills necessary to pass any one of a variety of mandatory written tests required at High School or Tertiary level.

Some teachers who use the method might also tell you that it is the most effective way to prepare students for "global communication" by beginning with the key skills of reading and grammar.  Others may even say it is the "least stressful" for students because almost all the teaching occurs in L1 and students are rarely called upon to speak the language in any communicative fashion.

More conservative teachers from more conservative countries are even likely to be put out by anyone merely questioning the method, and a typical response could be "because that's the way it's always been done - it's the way I learned and look, now I'm a professor".  The point being, the method is institutionalized and considered fundamental.  Such teachers are probably even unware that the method has a name and can be compared alongside other methods.

Key Features

According to Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979), the key features of the Grammar Translation Method are as follows:

(1)  Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.

(2)  Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.

(3)  Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.

(4)  Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.

(5)  Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.

(6)  Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.

(7)  Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.

(8)  Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

Typical Techniques

Diane Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:13) provides expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Grammar Translation Method.  The listing here is in summary form only.

(1)  Translation of a Literary Passage

      (Translating target language to native language)

(2)  Reading Comprehension Questions

      (Finding information in a passage, making inferences and relating to personal experience)

(3)  Antonyms/Synonyms

      (Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words).

(4) Cognates

      (Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target language)

(5)  Deductive Application of Rule

      (Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying them to new examples)

(6)  Fill-in-the-blanks

      (Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar type).

(7)  Memorization

      (Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms)

(8)  Use Words in Sentences

      (Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use of new words)

(9)  Composition

      (Students write about a topic using the target language)

II.2.The Direct Method

II.2.1.Overview

Towards the end of the late 1800s, a revolution in language teaching philosophy took place that is seen by many as the dawn of modern foreign language teaching.  Teachers, frustrated by the limits of the Grammar Translation Method in terms of its inability to create communicative competence in students, began to experiment with new ways of teaching language.  Basically, teachers began attempting to teach foreign languages in a way that was more similar to first language acquisition.  It incorporated techniques designed to address all the areas that the Grammar Translation did not - namely oral communication, more spontaneous use of the language, and developing the ability to think in the target language.  Perhaps in an almost reflexive action, the method also moved as far away as possible from various techniques typical of the Grammar Translation Method - for instance using L1 as the language of instruction, memorizing grammatical rules and lots of translation between L1 and the target language.

The appearance of the "Direct Method" thus coincided with a new school of thinking that dictated that all foreign language teaching should occur in the target language only, with no translation and an emphasis on linking meaning to the language being learned.  The method became very popular during the first quarter of the 20th century, especially in private language schools in Europe where highly motivated students could study new languages and not need to travel far in order to try them out and apply them communicatively.  One of the most famous advocates of the Direct Method was the German Charles Berlitz, whose schools and Berlitz Method are now world-renowned.

Still, the Direct Method was not without its problems.  As Brown (1994) points out, "(it) did not take well in public education where the constraints of budget, classroom size, time, and teacher background made such a method difficult to use."  By the late 1920s, the method was starting to go into decline and there was even a return to the Grammar Translation Method, which guaranteed more in the way of scholastic language learning orientated around reading and grammar skills.  But the Direct Method continues to enjoy a popular following in private language school circles, and it was one of the foundations upon which the well-known "Audiolingual Method" expanded from starting half way through the 20th century.

Objectives

The basic premise of the Direct Method is that students will learn to communicate in the target language, partly by learning how to think in that language and by not involving L1 in the language learning process whatsoever.  Objectives include teaching the students how to use the language spontaneously and orally, linking meaning with the target language through the use of realia, pictures or pantomime (Larsen-Freeman 1986:24).  There is to be a direct connection between concepts and the language to be learned.

Key Features

Richards and Rodgers (1986) summarize the key features of the Direct Method thus:

(1)  Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language.

(2)  Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.

(3)  Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully traded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.

(4)  Grammar is taught inductively.

(5)  New teaching points are taught through modeling and practice.

(6) Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.

(7)  Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.

(8) Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.

Typical Techniques

Diane Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986) provides expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Direct Method.  The listing here is in summary form only.

(1)  Reading Aloud

      (Reading sections of passages, plays or dialogs out loud)

(2)  Question and Answer Exercise

      (Asking questions in the target language and having students answer in full sentences)

(3)  Student Self-Correction

      (Teacher facilitates opportunities for students to self correct using follow-up questions, tone, etc)

(4) Conversation Practice

      (Teacher asks students and students ask students questions using the target language)

(5)  Fill-in-the-blank Exercise

      (Items use target language only and inductive rather than explicit grammar rules)

(6)  Dictation

      (Teacher reads passage aloud various amounts of times at various tempos, students writing down what they hear)

(7)  Paragraph Writing

      (Students write paragraphs in their own words using the target language and various models)

II.3.The Audiolingual Method

II.3.1.Overview

The next revolution in terms of language teaching methodology coincided with World War II, when America became aware that it needed people to learn foreign languages very quickly as part of its overall military operations.  The "Army Method" was suddenly developed to build communicative competence in translators through very intensive language courses focusing on aural/oral skills.  This in combination with some new ideas about language learning coming from the disciplines of descriptive linguistics and behavioral psychology went on to become what is known as the Audiolingual Method (ALM).

Theoretical Foundation

This approach to language teaching has the roots of its theoretical assumptions based on logical positivism and empiricism as the dominant philosophy of science of the time and consequently using the scientific method.

The linguistic theory behind this method was a version of structural linguistics known as American Structuralism or descriptivism, founded by the famous American linguist, Leonard Bloomfield, with its important tenets of the separation of the levels of linguistic representation and primacy of speech over written form of the language. Contrastive linguistics and the scientific approach to language analysis enhanced the scientific approach to foreign language teaching and learning.

The founders of the Audiolingualism Method, Lado, Fries, and others, not only possessed a convincing and powerful linguistic theory but also worked under the influence of the prominent school of psychology- the behavioral psychology. The psychology of learning, according to this view- point disregards intentions, the thinking, the conscious planning and the internal process of the learner. It emphasizes the externally observable responses (R) to specific stimuli (S), among which need mention, the classical conditioning of Pavlov and the 'operant conditioning' of great American linguist B.F. Skinner. Reinforcement plays a vital role in these S-R theories, whereas learners are considered 'organisms'. The stimulus serves as a tool to elicit a response, and consequently the appropriate response is enforced while the inappropriate response is suppressed.

Language mastery is represented as acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus-response chains. Foreign language learning is basically considered as a process of mechanical habit formation. The focus is on the mastery of phonological and grammatical structures and the sequence is assumed to start with phonological level and end up with sentence level. The learning principles include habit-formation, aural-oral, analogy and learning meaning in linguistic and cultural context. Speech is more basic to language than the written form.

The Audiolingual Method is based on the following principles:

• Speaking and listening competence preceded reading and writing competence.

• Use of German is highly discouraged in the classroom.

• The development of language skills is a matter of habit formulation.

• Students practice particular patterns of language through structured dialogue and drill until response is automatic.

• Structured patterns in language are taught using repetitive drills.

• The emphasis is on having students produce error free utterances.

• This method of language learning supports kinesthetic learning styles.

• Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures. Abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas.

• The printed word must be kept away from the second language learner as long as possible

Design and Objectives

Since Audiolingualism was theoretically based on the dominant linguistic and learning theory of the time, it demanded a complete reorientation of the foreign language curriculum. As for its objectives, two types of objectives were distinguished, those of the short-term and those of the long-term. The short-term objectives include, as Brooks (1964) has stated, "training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols and reproduction of these symbols in writing. Whereas the long-term objectives include mastery of native-like language.

The Audio-lingual Method benefits from an analytic, structure-based and linguistic syllabus to language teaching. The syllabus contains key items of phonology, morphology and syntax arranged according to their order of presentation, which may have been derived from a contrastive analysis L1 and L2. Vocabulary syllabus id graded into three levels; elementary, intermediate, and advanced. The order that language skills are presented is listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

The learning process is viewed as one of habituation and conditioning without the intervention of any intellectual analysis. The activities of teaching and learning process follow a hierarchy; recognition, discrimination, imitation, repetition and memorization. Dialogs are viewed as the core of an audio-lingual lesson and much time is allotted to repetition and memorization of the dialog. Another distinctive feature of audiolingualism is the active use of drills and pattern practice. These drills include free response, directed discourse, single and multiple-slot substitution, transformation, repetition and expansion. They are adaptations of the dialog with a more personal application to the students' own situation and will provide further consolidation of learning and give opportunity for more flexible use of material. However, some audio-lingual text writers prefer to develop drills on structures different from those in the dialogs, believing in this way they can provide a more logical development of basic language requirements. Students are systematically introduced to the reading of the printed script after oral work. In more advanced stages, attention turns more and more to reading materials of well-written passages, carefully chosen for the level of difficulty of language. Writing is imitative in early stages, while in higher stages written composition provides students with further opportunities to use the material they have learned in a more individual fashion.

In accordance with the theoretical assumptions of learning underlying the method, learners are considered as reactive and imitator organisms. They are interaction initiators, respond to and perform controlled tasks, and have no control over content, pace and style of learning.

Teacher like an orchestra leader has a central, active and dominant role who models, controls, monitors, corrects, introduces, sustains and harmonizes all four skills and active verbal interaction between teacher-learner and learner-learner.

Teaching materials are teacher-oriented aiming at the development of language mastery. In the early stages, students' textbooks are not available and students may copy some of the course elements which they have listened to, repeated and responded. Later text books containing dialogs and cues for drills and exercises are provided. Tape recorders and audiovisual equipment play an important role in audio-lingual classes.

Evaluation in audio-lingual classes is based on learner's performance on discrete-point tests and also on learner's class activity.

Just as with the Direct Method that preceded it, the overall goal of the Audiolingual Method was to create communicative competence in learners.  However, it was thought that the most effective way to do this was for students to "overlearn" the language being studied through extensive repetition and a variety of elaborate drills.  The idea was to project the linguistic patterns of the language (based on the studies of structural linguists) into the minds of the learners in a way that made responses automatic and "habitual".  To this end it was held that the language "habits" of the first language would constantly interfere, and the only way to overcome this problem was to facilitate the learning of a new set of "habits" appropriate linguistically to the language being studied.

Key Features

Here is a summary of the key features of the Audiolingual Method, taken from Brown (1994:57) and adapted from Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979).

(1)  New material is presented in dialog form.

(2)  There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning.

(3)  Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.

(4)  Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.

(5)  There is little or no grammatical explanation.  Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation.

(6)  Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.

(7)  There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.

(8)  Great importance is attached to pronunciation.

(9)  Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.

(10)  Successful responses are immediately reinforced.

(11)  There is great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances.

(12) There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.

Typical Techniques

Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:45-47) provides expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Audiolingual Method.  The listing here is in summary form only.

(1)  Dialog Memorization

      (Students memorize an opening dialog using mimicry and applied role-playing)

(2)  Backward Build-up (Expansion Drill)

      (Teacher breaks a line into several parts, students repeat each part starting at the end of the

       sentence and "expanding" backwards through the sentence, adding each part in sequence)

(3)  Repetition Drill

      (Students repeat teacher's model as quickly and accurately as possible)

(4) Chain Drill

      (Students ask and answer each other one-by-one in a circular chain around the classroom )

(5)  Single Slot Substitution Drill

      (Teacher states a line from the dialog, then uses a word or a phrase as a "cue" that students, when repeating the line, must substitute into the sentence in the correct place)

(6)  Multiple-slot Substitution Drill

      (Same as the Single Slot drill, except that there are multiple cues to be substituted into the line)

(7)  Transformation Drill

      (Teacher provides a sentence that must be turned into something else, for example a question to be turned into a statement, an active sentence to be turned into a negative statement, etc)

(8) Question-and-answer Drill

      (Students should answer or ask questions very quickly)

(9) Use of Minimal Pairs

      (Using contrastive analysis, teacher selects a pair of words that sound identical except for a single sound that typically poses difficulty for the learners - students are to pronounce and differentiate the two words)

(10) Complete the Dialog

      (Selected words are erased from a line in the dialog - students must find and insert)

(11) Grammar Games

      (Various games designed to practice a grammar point in context, using lots of repetition)

Procedures

The process of instruction follows an implicit strategy of learning rather than an explicit one. As mentioned earlier, this method acts according to a sequence of recognition, discrimination, imitation, repetition and memorization procedure. It is an inductive teaching and learning method. Extensive oral practice in a target language-dominant class is the focus of instruction and the use of the mother tongue is discouraged.

Assessments

As it is with any other method, audio-lingual method has strength and weaknesses. It is the only method so far based on the dominant linguistic and learning theory of its age. It has emphasized accurate pronunciation and enhanced auditory memory and listening comprehension at native speed and speed of speech. Amongst its weaknesses which need mention here are; over-abundance and excessive dependence on skills and lack of variety of activity and real language practice. Since its underlying theoretical assumptions considered the role of the external processing of learning superior to that of internal processing, assumed as irrelevant or secondary, they were strongly questioned and doubted. This, consequently, led to the decline of audiolingualism. However, it has been modified, undergone profound changes and is still practiced eclectively throughout the world and some of the so-called new methods such as versions of communicative language teaching use its rich and ripe techniques.

II.4.Suggestopedia

II.4.1.Overview

In the late 70s, a Bulgarian psychologist by the name of Georgi Lozanov introduced the contention that students naturally set up psychological barriers to learning - based on fears that they will be unable to perform and are limited in terms of their ability to learn.  Lozanov believed that learners may have been using only 5 to 10 percent of their mental capacity, and that the brain could process and retain much more material if given optimal conditions for learning.  Based on psychological research on extrasensory perception, Lozanov began to develop a language learning method that focused on "desuggestion" of the limitations learners think they have, and providing the sort of relaxed state of mind that would facilitate the retention of material to its maximum potential.  This method became known as Suggestopedia (but also - rather confusingly - Desuggestopedia) - the name reflecting the application of the power of "(de)suggestion" to the field of pedagogy.

One of the most unique characteristics of the method was the use of soft Baroque music during the learning process.  Baroque music has a specific rhythm and a pattern of 60 beats per minute, and Lozanov believed it created a level of relaxed concentration that facilitated the intake and retention of huge quantities of material.  This increase in learning potential was put down to the increase in alpha brain waves and decrease in blood pressure and heart rate that resulted from listening to Baroque music.  Another aspect that differed from other methods to date was the use of soft comfortable chairs and dim lighting in the classroom (other factors believed to create a more relaxed state of mind).

Other characteristics of Suggestopedia were the giving over of complete control and authority to the teacher (who at times can appear to be some kind of instructional hypnotist using this method!) and the encouragement of learners to act as "childishly" as possible, often even assuming names and characters in the target language.  All of these principles in combination were seen to make the students "suggestible" (or their fears of language learning "desuggestible"), and therefore able to utilize their maximum mental potential to take in and retain new material.

Objectives

The prime objective of Suggestopedia is to tap into more of students' mental potential to learn, in order to accelerate the process by which they learn to understand and use the target language for communication.  Four factors considered essential in this process were the provision of a relaxed and comfortable learning environment, the use of soft Baroque music to help increase alpha brain waves and decrease blood pressure and heart rate, "desuggestion" in terms of the pyschological barriers learners place on their own learning potential, and "suggestibility" through the encouragement of learners assuming "child-like" and/or new roles and names in the target language.

Key Features

Here are some of the key features of Suggestopedia:

(1)  Learning is facilitated in an environment that is as comfortable as possible, featuring soft cushioned seating and dim lighting.

(2)  "Peripheral" learning is encouraged through the presence in the learning environment of posters and decorations featuring the target language and various grammatical information.

(3)  The teacher assumes a role of complete authority and control in the classroom.

(4) Self-perceived and psychological barriers to learners' potential to learn are "desuggested".

(5)  Students are encouraged to be child-like, take "mental trips with the teacher" and assume new roles and names in the target language in order to become more "suggestible".

(6)  Baroque music is played softly in the background to increase mental relaxation and potential to take in and retain new material during the lesson.

(7)  Students work from lengthy dialogs in the target language, with an accompanying translation into the students' native language.

(8)  Errors are tolerated, the emphasis being on content and not structure.  Grammar and vocabulary are presented and given treatment from the teacher, but not dwelt on.

(9)  Homework is limited to students re-reading the dialog they are studying - once before they go to sleep at night and once in the morning before they get up.

(10)  Music, drama and "the Arts" are integrated into the learning process as often as possible.

Typical Techniques

Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986) provides expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with Suggestopedia.  The listing here is in summary form only.

(1)  Classroom Set-up

      (Emphasis is placed on creating a physical environment that does not "feel" like a normal classroom, and makes the students feel as relaxed and comfortable as possible)

(2)  Peripheral Learning

      (Students can absorb information "effortlessly" when it is perceived as part of the environment, rather than the material "to be attended to")

(3)  Positive Suggestion

      (Teachers appeal to students' consciousness and subconscious in order to better orchestrate the «suggestive» factors involved in the learning situation)

(4) Visualization

      (Students are asked to close their eyes and visualize scenes and events, to help them relax, facilitate positive suggestion and encourage creativity from the students)

(5)  Choose a New Identity

      (Students select a target language name and/or occupation that places them "inside" the language they are learning)

(6)  Role-play

      (Students pretend temporarily that they are somone else and perform a role using the target language)

(7)  First Concert

      (Teacher does a slow, dramatic reading of the dialog synchronized in intonation with classical music)

(8) Second Concert

      (Students put aside their scripts and the teacher reads at normal speed according to the content, not the accompanying pre-Classical or Baroque music - this typically ends the class for the day)

(9)  Primary Activation

      (Students "playfully" reread the target language out loud, as individuals or in groups)

(10) Secondary Activation

      (Students engage in various activities designed to help the students learn the material and use it more spontaneously - activities include singing, dancing, dramatizations and games - "communicative intent" and not "form" being the focus)

II.5.The Communicative Language Teaching Approach

II.5.1.Overview

All the methods described so far are symbolic of the progress foreign language teaching ideology underwent in the last century.  These were methods that came and went, influenced or gave birth to new methods - in a cycle that could only be described as competition between rival methods or even passing fads in the methodological theory underlying foreign language teaching.  Finally, by the mid-eighties or so, the industry was maturing in its growth and moving towards the concept of a broad "approach" to language teaching that encompassed various methods, motivations for learning English, types of teachers and the needs of individual classrooms and students themselves.  It would be fair to say that if there is any one umbrella approach to language teaching that has become the accepted "norm" in this field, it would have to be the Communicative Language Teaching Approach.  This is also known as CLT.

Basic Features of CLT

David Nunan (1991:279) lists five basic characteristics of Communicative Language Teaching:

(1)  An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.

(2)  The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.

(3)  The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on the language but also on the learning process itself.

(4)  An enhancement of the learner's own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.

(5)  An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.

CLT Features at Length

Finnochiaro and Brumfit (1983:91-93) compiled this list of CLT features way back in 1983 as a means of comparing it to the Audiolingual Method.  Below each feature in blue italics is the feature of ALM to which it was being compared.

(1)  CLT:  Meaning is paramount.

      ALM:  Attends to structure and form more than meaning.

(2)  CLT:  Dialogs, if used, center around communicative functions and are not normally memorized.

      ALM:  Demands more memorization of structure-based dialogs.

(3)  CLT:  Contextualization is a basic premise.

      ALM:  Language items are not necessarily contextualized.

(4)  CLT:  Language learning is learning to communicate.

      ALM:  Language Learning is learning structures, sounds or words.

(5) CLT:  Effective communication is sought.

      ALM:  Mastery or "overlearning" is sought.

(6)  CLT:  Drilling may occur, but peripherially.

      ALM:  Drilling is a central technique.

(7)  CLT:  Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.

      ALM:  Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought.

(8)  CLT:  Any device which helps the learners is accepted - varying according to their age, interest, etc.

      ALM:  Grammatical explanation is avoided.

(9) CLT:  Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning.

      ALM:  Communicative activities only come after a long process of rigid drills and exercises.

(10)  CLT:  Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible.

        ALM:  The use of the students' native language is forbidden.

(11)  CLT:  Translation may be used where students need or benefit from it.

        ALM:  Translation is forbidden at early levels.

(12) CLT:  Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired.

        ALM:  Reading and writing are deferred until speech is mastered.

(13)  CLT:  The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of struggling to communicate.

        ALM:  The target linguistic system will be learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system.

(14)  CLT:  Communicative competence is the desired goal.

        ALM:  Linguistic competence is the desired goal.

(15)  CLT:  Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methods.

        ALM:  Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized.

(16)  CLT:  Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content function, or meaning which maintains interest.

        ALM:  The sequence of units is determined solely on principles of linguistic complexity.

(17)  CLT:  Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language.

        ALM:  The teacher controls the learners and prevents them from doing anything that conflicts with the theory.

(18)  CLT:  Language is created by the individual often through trial and error.

        ALM:  "Language is habit" so error must be prevented at all costs.

(19) CLT:  Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal: accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context.

        ALM:  Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary goal.

(20)  CLT:  Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their writings.

        ALM:  Students are expected to interact with the language system, embodied in machines or controlled materials.

(21)  CLT:  The teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will use.

        ALM:  The teacher is expected to specify the language that students are to use.

(22)  CLT:  Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language.

        ALM:  Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of the language.

Caveats

Brown (1994:78-80) warns that there are certain caveats in the field of language teaching when it comes to discussing CLT and one's support of the approach, saying that that support or belief needs to be "qualified".  He warns against:

(1)  Giving "lip service" to the principles of CLT (because "no one these days would admit to a disbelief in principles of CLT; they would be marked as a heretic") without actually grounding one's teaching techniques in those principles, or making sure one indeed understands and practices according to the characteristics that make CLT what it is.

(2)  Overdoing certain CLT features, for example engaging in real-life authentic language to the exclusion of helpful devices such as controlled practice, or vice versa.  Moderation is needed in combination with common sense and a balanced approach.

(3)  The numerous interpretations of what CLT actually "is".  CLT is often a catchcall term, and does not reflect the fact that not everyone agrees on its interpretation or application.

      Teachers need to be aware that there are many possible versions, and it is intended as an "umbrella" term covering a variety of methods.

Conclusion

Over the centuries, many changes have taken place in language learning, and yet there is evidence that considerations related to language learning have come up again and again through history. No doubt the search for a greater understanding of language learning, and more effective language teaching, will continue.

In conclusion there must be said that it is better when all methods are used in combination. Every approach has its advantages and disadvantages. Some of the methods are very popular nowadays, others are not so popular but anyway every approach is very important in the process of teaching.

Grammar Translation Method is still common in many countries - even popular.  Brown attempts to explain why the method is still employed by pointing out: "It requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers.  Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored.  Many standardized tests of foreign languages still do not attempt to tap into communicative abilities, so students have little motivation to go beyond grammar analogies, translations, and rote exercises.

The Direct Method is undoubtedly a highly effective method in terms of creating language learners who are very competent in terms of using the target language communicatively.  However, as pointed out above, it requires small class sizes, motivated learners and talented teachers in order to succeed really well.  It is also an unfortunate fact of life that students of foreign languages these days need more than just the ability to communicate confidently - they need to be able to demonstrate grammatical accuracy and good reading skills in order to succeed in both national and international language testing systems. .  It becomes something of an issue in countries where English language learning is primarily EFL-based (that is, English as a Foreign Language) and there is a distinct shortage of both the opportunity to apply the language communicatively in real-life situations outside the actual classroom, and teachers who have the required level of native or native-like ability in the target language and the creativity to provide realistic examples to illustrate what elements of the language actually mean.

Just as with the Direct Method, the Audiolingual Method represents a major step in language teaching methodology that was still aimed squarely at communicative competence.  A teacher that can use the method well will generally be able to create what appear to be very "productive" students. 

The language teaching method known as Suggestopedia provides some valuable insights into the power of cognition and creating/employing techniques that make students feel comfortable and relaxed, and "suggestible" to the material being learned.

Communicative language teaching is an approach to the teaching of languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Despite a number of criticisms, it continues to be popular, particularly in Europe, where constructivist views on language learning and education in general dominate academic discourse.

Bibliography

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13) http/google/com

14) http/rambler/com

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