TYPOLOGY CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INTERJECTION, ATTRIBUTES AND OBJECTS.

Реферат на тему: INTERJECTION TYPOLOGY CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INTERJECTION.

An interjection or exclamation describes a noun with a grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence and simply expresses emotion on the part of the speaker, although most interjections have clear definitions. Filled pauses such as uh, er, um, are also considered interjections. Interjections are generally uninflected function words and have sometimes been seen as sentence-words, because they can replace or be replaced by a whole sentence (they are holophrastic). Sometimes, however, interjections combine with other words to form sentences, but not with finite verbs. When an exclamation point is not needed, a comma can take the place. Interjections are used when the speaker encounters events that cause these emotions — unexpectedly, painfully, surprisingly, or in many other sudden ways. However, several languages have interjections that cannot be related to emotions. The word "interjection" literally means "thrown in between" from the Latin inter ("between") and iacere ("throw").Interjections are words used to express strong feeling or sudden emotion. They are included in a sentence usually at the start to express a sentiment such as surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, or enthusiasm.

Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.

The table below shows some interjections with examples.

interjection	meaning	example
ah	expressing pleasure	"Ah, that feels good."
	expressing realization	"Ah, now I understand."
	expressing resignation	"Ah well, it can't be heped."
	expressing surprise	"Ah! I've won!"
alas	expressing grief or pity	"Alas, she's dead now."
dear	expressing pity	"Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
	expressing surprise	"Dear me! That's a surprise!"
eh	asking for repetition	"It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."
	expressing enquiry	"What do you think of that, eh?"
	expressing surprise	"Eh! Really?"
	inviting agreement	"Let's go, eh?"
er	expressing hesitation	"Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."
hello, hullo	expressing greeting	"Hello John. How are you today?"
	expressing surprise	"Hello! My car's gone!"
hey	calling attention	"Hey! look at that!"
	expressing surprise, joy etc	"Hey! What a good idea!"
hi	expressing greeting	"Hi! What's new?"
hmm	expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement	"Hmm. I'm not so sure."
oh, o	expressing surprise	"Oh! You're here!"
	expressing pain	"Oh! I've got a toothache."
	expressing pleading	"Oh, please say 'yes'!"
ouch	expressing pain	"Ouch! That hurts!"
uh	expressing hesitation	"Uh...I don't know the answer to that."
uh-huh	expressing agreement	"Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."
um, umm	expressing hesitation	"85 divided by 5 is...um...17."
well	expressing surprise	"Well I never!"
	introducing a remark	"Well, what did he say?"

The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:

When Reginald was home with flu, uh-huh-huh,
The doctor knew just what to do-hoo.
He cured the infection
With one small injection
While Reginald uttered some interjections..

Hey! That smarts!
Ouch! That hurts!
Yow! That's not fair givin' a guy a shot down there!

Interjections (Hey!) show excitement (Yow!) or emotion (Ouch!).
They're generally set apart from a sentence by an exclamation point,
Or by a comma when the feeling's not as strong.

Though Geraldine played hard to get, uh-huh-huh
Geraldo knew he'd woo her ye-het
He showed his affection
Despite her objections
And Geraldine hollered some interjections...

Well! You've got some nerve!
Oh! I've never been so insulted in all my life!
Hey! You're kinda cute!

Interjections (Well!) show excitement (Oh!) or emotion (Hey!).
They're generally set apart from a sentence by an exclamation point,
Or by a comma when the feeling's not as strong.

So when you're happy (Hurray!) or sad (Aw!)
Or frightened (Eeeeeek!) or mad (Rats!)
Or excited (Wow!) or glad (Hey!)
An interjection starts a sentence right.

The game was tied at seven all, uh-huh-huh,
When Franklin found he had the ba-hall.
He made a connection
In the other direction,
And the crowd started shouting out interjections...

Aw! You threw the wrong way!
Darn! You just lost the game!
Hurray! I'm for the other team!

Interjections (Aw!) show excitement (Darn!) or emotion (Hurray!).
They're generally set apart from a sentence by an exclamation point,
Or by a comma when the feeling's not as strong.

So when you're happy (Hurray!) or sad (Aw!)
Or frightened (Eeeeeek!) or mad (Rats!)
Or excited (Wow!) or glad (Hey!)
An interjection starts a sentence right.

Interjections (Hey!) show excitement (Hey!) or emotion (Hey!).
They're generally set apart from a sentence by an exclamation point,
Or by a comma when the feeling's not as strong.

Interjections show excitement or emotion,
Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah... YEA!

Darn! That's the end!

2. TYPOLOGY OF THE WORD-GROUP/PHRASE.

PHRASE

There are 2 understandings of the term phrase:

A phrase is a combination of 2 or more notional words connected by means of subordination: e.g. cold weather, writing letters, fruit salad, Peter’s book. The elements of the phrase may belong to any PofS. Some of the scholars do not single out the phrase at all. H.Sweet-a word group.

• Prof. Barkhudarov: a phrase is a combination of 2 or more notional words, connected by means of subordination, coordination and predicative relation if it cannot function as a sentence: mother and father

The diff-ce between a phrase and a sentence is fundamental.

A phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or process, just as a word is. Each component of a phrase can undergo grammatical changes in accordance with gr. cat-ris without destroying the unity of the phrase.

A sentence is a unit with every word having its definite form. A change in the form of one or more words would produce a new sentence. A phrase or a word has no intonation. A sentence has it.

The study of the phrase in Russian and foreign linguistics:

Russian Linguistics:

The creation of the theory of a phrase is due to Russian linguists. This theory is connected with such linguists as Фортунатов, Шахматов, Пешковский. All through its development the theory underwent a lot of changes. Until the 50-s the wide understanding of the term “phrase” prevailed. And any syntactically organized group was considered as a phrase, no matter what constituted it.

This point of view is still accepted.

But by the 50-s there appeared in the modern linguistics a new interpretation of this problem, and the term “phrase” acquired an extremely narrow sense and was applied only to those phrases which include not less than 2 notional words, connected by the relations of subordination. Predicative and prepositional groups were excluded from the phrase theory. This point of view was introduced by Vinogradov and was supported by many Russian linguists.

This is characteristic of Russian linguists to bring a word and a phrase together to the maximum.

Though this point of view was not supported by some of linguists (Ilyish), it became the predominant in the middle of the 20 century, and the traditional understanding of a phrase in the Russian linguistics is restricted to subordinate structures only.

!!! Sentences are communicative units of language, phrases – non-communicative. But, the phrase can acquire the properties of a sentence, e.g. Mother and father? (an elliptical sentence).

 Foreign Linguistics:

The scientific theory on the phrase appeared abroad much later. It acquired its theoretical interpretation only in the 30-s due to an American linguist Leo Bloomfield.

Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis)

‘Any English-speaking person who concerns himself with this matter, is sure to tell us that the immediate constituents of Poor John ran away are the two forms poor John and ran away, that each of these is, in turn, a complex form; that the immediate constituents of ran away are ran and away; and that the constituents of poor John are poor and John.’

IC analysis is relevant for any level. A sentence is not a mere combination of words, it’s not a linear sequence of words, sentences are made of layers of immediate constituents. Each unit of a lower level is part of the unit of a higher level. 

The IC analysis can be graphically presented in a number of ways. We may use brackets [(Poor John)(ran away)] or we may construct a tree diagram.

In studying phrases from a gradial point of view we’ll divide them according to their function in the sentence

• -those which perform the function of one or more parts of the sentence

• -those who’s function is that of a preposition or conjunction

Synthetical relations between the components of a phrase

• agreement – method of expressing a synthectical relationship which consist in making the subordinate word take a similar form of the head word // this book, those books as to the problem of agreement of the verb with the noun and pronoun denoting the subject of the action // a child plays, children play – usually treated on the sentence level

• government – the use of certain form of subordinate word required by its head word but not coinciding with the form of the head word. Only case in ENG – personal pronouns // invite him

• adjoinment – the connection between these words is preserved owning to the grammatical and semantic compatibility of the adv. Only verb + adv

• enclosure – some element of a phrase is enclosed between 2 parts of another element

Types of phrases:

Phrases may be classified by the type of head taken by them:

• Prepositional phrase (PP) with a preposition as head (e.g. in love, over the rainbow). Languages using postpositions instead have postpositional phrases. The two types are sometimes commonly referred to as adpositional phrases.

• Noun phrase (NP) with a noun as head (e.g. the black cat, a cat on the mat)

• Verb phrase (VP) with a verb as head (e.g. eat cheese, jump up and down)

• Adjectival phrase (AP) with an adjective as head (e.g. full of toys, fraught with guilt)

• Adverbial phrase (AdvP) with an adverb as head (e.g. very carefully)

Complexity:

A complex phrase consists of several words, whereas a simple phrase consists of only one word. This terminology is especially often used with verb phrases:

• simple past and present are simple phrases, which require just one verb

• complex verbs have one or two aspects added and hence require additional two or three words

"Complex," which is phrase-level, is often confused with "compound," which is word-level. However, there are certain phenomena that formally seem to be phrases but semantically are more like compounds, such as "women's magazines," which has the form of a possessive noun phrase, but which refers (just like a compound) to one specific lexeme (i.e. a magazine for women and not a magazine owned by a woman).

WORD-GROUP

Word-group is:

• phrase: a word group without a verb or participle

• clause: a word group with a verb or participle (if it can stand alone, it's an independent clause; if not, it's a dependent clause)

• sentence: a word group which makes a complete statement, usually with subject and verb. In systemic linguistics, the rank between group/phrase and morpheme on the grammatical rank scale

Clause is a word group with a verb or participle.

An independent clause (also known as the main clause) is a word group that is a complete statement.

example: We give thanks to God always for you all.

A dependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause) is a word group that does not form a complete statement. It introduces a word group that functions as an adjective or adverb, describing some other part of the sentence.

A relative clause is a dependent clause that begins with a relative pronoun--who, whom, which, that. The norm is: a relative clause functions as an adjective.

example: The Word of God, which works also in you, the believing ones


Sentence is a word group which makes a complete statement, usually with subject and verb.

example: Rejoice always; pray without ceasing; in everything give thanks -for this is the will of God for you in Christ Jesus.

Word-group classes

		common
	noun	proper
nominals		pronoun
	adjective
	numeral
	determiner

"nominals in a nominal group serve to construe participants, to enact persons and to present referents"
 

		lexical
	verb	auxiliary
verbals		finite
	preposition

Prepositions serve as Minor-processes in prepositional phrases, with a nominal group (complex) as Complement/Range; the phrase forms a kind of mini-clause. Prepositions may be simple (e.g., at, on, in, over), sometimes of verbal origin (indicating their affinity with verbs, e.g. regarding, following, using), or complex (e.g, on top of, according to, because of).
 

	adverb
adverbials		linker
	conjunction	binder
		continuative

Group (expansion of a word)

Group is the rank in the lexicogrammar between clause and word: groups function in clauses and are composed of words. A group is in many respects a group of words or a word complex: words enter into logical structure to form a group. The structure is that of Head and modifier(s).

Examples:

 

Premodifier	Head	Postmodifier
a very bright	student	from Halden
extremely	bright
	brighter	than most
has been	studying

Nominal group (noun group, adjective group)

[The suit] is definitely [the universal business outfit for [men]]. There is [nothing else that [men] like to wear when [they]'re doing [business]]. [I] don't know why [it] projects [this image of [power]]. Why is it [intimidating]? "[We]'d better do what [this guy] says, [his pants] match [his jacket]."

Noun group:
 

Premodifier			Head (Thing)	Postmodifier
Deictic	Epithet	Classifier
determiner / numeral	adjective	noun / adjective	noun	prepositional phrase / embedded clause / adjective
The			suit
the	universal	business	outfit	for men
			nothing	else | that men … business
this			image	of power
this			guy
his			pants
his			jacket
a	simulated	breast	pocket
another			chance	to wear it
a		leather	jacket	that got ruined in the rain

Adjective group
 

Premodifier	Head	Postmodifier
adverb(s)	adjective	embedded clause / prepositional phrase
very	fond	of animals
more	clever	than the other students
quite unbelievably	expensive

Verbal group

Men love the suit so much, we've actually styled our pajamas to look like a tiny suit. Our pajamas have little lapels, little cuffs, simulated breast pocket. Do you need a breast pocket on your pajamas? You put a pen in there, you roll over in the middle of the night, you kill yourself.
 

Premodifier		Head (Event)
Finite	Auxiliary
have		styled
do		need
hasn't	been	working
should	have been being	paid
couldn't	have been going to be being	eaten

Adverbial group
 

Premodifier	Head	Postmodifier
adverb(s)	adverb	prepositional phrase / embedded clause / adverb
much more	quickly	than I could count
too	quickly	for me (to follow)
	faster	than I could go
as	early	as two o'clock

Conjunction group

examples: even if, not until, if only, as soon as

Preposition group (modifier + head)

right behind (the door), not without (regret), all along (the route), way off (the mark)

1. ATTRIBUTE, APPOSITION AS THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCES.

Isomorphic in English and Ukrainian, like in all other Indo-European languages, is also the existence of detached secondary parts of the sen­tence, which may be unexpended or extended. Their position in the sentence is not always fixed and they have a loose connection with their head components. Apart from their relatively free preposed or post posed placement detached parts of the sentence in both contrasted languages have an implicit predicative meaning. Besides, these parts of the sen­tence can be only object (indirect), attribute and the adverbial parts. The most frequently detached in both contrasted languages are attributes (including appositional attributes).

Attribute is a sentence member which depends on a noun in any of its sentential functions and which, as a rule, specifies more closely, or "determines" its meaning. In inquiring about attributes we use such interrogative pronouns as which, what or whose connected with the governing noun. Attribute either agrees with its governing member or it is governed by it, or its dependency is not expressed by a special form.

An attribute that agrees, at least in case, with the noun on which it depends, is called agreeing attribute. If this attribute is represented by an adjective (a pronoun or a numeral in this status) it agrees in case, number and gender. In rare cases there occur attributes of feminine gender pertaining to masculine nouns as a means of emotional expression, e.g. a long-eared-Fem.

An attribute that does not decline in accordance with its governing noun and, as a rule, represents a case different from that of this noun, or is expressed by an adverb or an infinitive, is called a non-agreeing attribute.

Typological Features of Attributive Clauses

Like all other nominal clauses, English and Ukrainian attributive clauses have also both isomorphic and allomorphic features. The isomorphic fea­tures, which generally outnumber the latter, are predetermined by some common syntactic and semantic factors. These are the following fea­tures of attributive clauses in the contrasted languages: 1) they always follow the antecedent noun, pronoun or numeral which they modify/ specify; 2) they may sometimes be substituted for the corresponding participial constructions performing an attributive function; 3) They may often be joined to the English antecedent asyndetically.

He could be somebody who could He could be somebody playing

play the piano. (Saroyan) the piano.

Note. Far from all English participial constructions used in the attrib­utive function to a prepositive nominal word, can be transformed into an attributive clause (or vice versa). The restrictions are due to the meaning of the participle and the predicate verb in the attributive clause respec­tively. E.g.: There was the other Sirnosian with them who was not an uneasy man. (Aldridge) Or: ... it is so now, at the time / am writing. (Amis) Neither of the two attributive clauses in these sentences can be transformed into a semantically corresponding attributive participial con­struction because the predicate "was not an uneasy man" like "am writing" are not transformable (like their equivalents in Ukrainian) into present participles in general.

Attributive clauses in the contrasted languages have some other common features, namely:

1. they can be joined to the antecedent of the matrix clause by means of conjunctions that, as if/as though, whether:

Gilbert has just told me something that I can hardly bring myself to believe. (Maugham). I have a feeling that if I'd stayed a day longer I should have been bored.

b) they are much more often joined to the matrix clause by means of relative pronouns and relative adverbs (who, whose, what, which, that, when, whence, where, how:

I glanced at Daisy, who was staring between Gatsby and her husband. (Fitzgerald). It is the sanctuary where all find refuge. (Maugham)

Common in the contrasted languages are some traditionally distin­guished groups of attribute clauses like the following:

1. Appositive clauses which are joined to an antecedent noun having a most general abstract meaning or to a pronoun (mostly indefinite) with the help of a relative pronoun or pronominal adverb:

This was the time when they looked now. (O'Dell)

Also it seemed to be connected with something which required concealment. (Dreiser)

2. Restrictive attributive clauses in English and Ukrainian are very closely connected with the antecedent which is determined or identified/ particularized by the subordinate clause without which the matrix clause^-" is incomplete:

There was a legend among the people that the island had once been covered with tall trees. (O'Dell)

3. Descriptive attributive clauses give some additional information about the antecedent. Due to this the clauses in both contrasted languages may be omitted without affecting the semantic completeness of the sentence:

...his eyes were fixed upon the princess, who sat to the right of his father. (Stockton)

Attributive clauses in both languages may be joined to the matrix clause by prepositional relative pronouns:

His love became a prison for him from which he longed to escape (Maugham).

The detached attribute. This part of the sentence may refer in English and Ukrainian to nouns and to pronouns, usually expressing in both contrasted languages some additional adverbial meaning (cause, condition, comparison, concession, time, etc.).

Very white, he turned back to the balcony. (Galsworthy)

The subject "he" is not simply "white" (attribute) but "very white", i. e. white to some degree (how white?).

Sometimes Ukrainian equivalents of English loose attributes may have no synthetic agreement with their head components.

There were two figures, middle-aged and young. (Galsworthy)

A detached attribute can also be expressed by a prepositional noun:

… his greatest joy in life had been

… his long summer holidays, in Italy and around the Alps...

Apposition – a word or a phrase referring to a part of the sentence expressed by a noun, and giving some other designation to the person or thing named by that noun, e.g. For a moment, Melanie thought how nice Captain Butler was. 

The detached apposition

Detached appositions identify or explain the head component which may be a noun or a pronoun:

...Minna found the house, a pretty little cottage, set back from the street. (Norris)

In the east mountain peaks-fingers of snow - glittered above the mist. (Galsworthy)

The English specifies are semantically. similar: quite, almost, by name, etc.

That poor boy, bom a serf, became a genius of all Ukrainians.

4. OBJECTS. KINDS OF OBJECTS.

Definition: The object is the person or thing affected by the action described in the verb. A verb may be followed by an object that completes the verb's meaning.

For example:

• He wrote the book.
  * "book" is the object, created by the action of writing.

• I saw the film.
  * "film" is the object, sensed by the subject seeing it.

Complex Objects

Like subjects, objects can be complex, consisting of the simple object and all the words which modify it.

For example:

• I finally bought the dress I had tried on at least thirty times.
  * Simple object - dress
  * Complex object - the dress I had tried on at least thirty times

• He chose the mangy puppy shivering over in the corner of the cage.
  * Simple object - puppy
  * Complex object - the mangy puppy shivering over in the corner of the cage.

Not all verbs are followed by objects.

For example:

• The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest.

• After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal.

Classification of object:

• Prepositional and non-prepositional objects

• Morphological types (noun, pronoun, substantivized adjective, infinitive, gerund)

• Direct/indirect, is applied only to objects expressed by nouns or pronouns. There are sentences in which the predicate is expressed by the verbs send, show, lend, give. These verbs usually take 2 different kinds of objects simultaneously: (1) an object expressing the thing which is sent, shown, lent, given, etc. (2) the person or persons to whom the thing is sent, shown, lent, given, etc. The difference between the 2 relations is clear enough: the direct object denotes the thing immediately affected by the action denoted by the predicate verb, whereas the indirect object expresses the person towards whom the thing is moved, e.g. We sent them a present. The indirect object stands 1st, the direct object comes after it.

In studying different kinds of objects it is also essential to take into account the possibility of the corresponding passive construction.

Types of object

Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects.

• Direct object: Refers to a person or thing affected by the action of the verb.

• Indirect object: Refers to a person or thing who receives the direct object.

For example:

• He opened the door.
  * Here the door is the direct object as it is the thing being affected by the verb to open.

• I gave him the book.
  * Here him (he) is the indirect object as he is the beneficiary of the action.

DIRECT OBJECT

Definition: A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a "transitive verb" in an active sentence or shows the result of the action. It answers the question "What?" or "Whom?" after an action verb.

For example:

• Mary burnt the toast.
  * What did Mary burn? - She burnt the toast. "toast" is the direct object

A simple direct object is only the noun or pronoun, whereas a complex direct object consists of that noun and pronoun and any modifiers that accompany it.

For example:

• Mary burnt the toast and the eggs.
  * What did Mary burn? - She burnt the toast and the eggs. "toast" and "eggs" are the direct objects.

Useful method for determining direct objects

Another useful method for determining whether a noun or noun phrase acts as the direct object is to attempt to rephrase the sentence in the passive voice. If you can turn the sentence into the passive form, then the direct object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. If the noun or noun phrase is not a direct object, then the sentence will not convert into a passive form.

For example:

• Active: Todd sang a song.
  = Passive: A song was sung by Todd.
  * The direct object, "a song," of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive one.

• Active: Ashley became a track star.
  * "A track star" is not a direct object and thus cannot become the subject in a passive sentence.

Examples

• She closed the door.
  * "door" is the direct object because it is directly affected by her action.

• Mail the letter and call him
  * "letter" and "him" are direct objects

• King Arthur grabbed his sword.
  * King Arthur is the subject, because he performs the verb. "Grabbed" is the verb; "his" is a possessive pronoun; the sword is the direct object because the grabbing is performed upon it.

INDIRECT OBJECT

Definition: An indirect object precedes the direct object and tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done and who is receiving the direct object. There must be a direct object to have an indirect object. Indirect objects are usually found with verbs of giving or communicating like give, bring, tell, show, take, or offer. An indirect object is always a noun or pronoun which is not part of a prepositional phrase. Indirect objects are usually placed directly before the direct object.

For example:

• He gave Mary a rose.
  * The predicate of the above sentence consists of the transitive verb "gave," the indirect object "Mary," and the direct object "rose."

Indirect objects can also be complex, consisting of the simple indirect object and all the words describing it.

For example:

• I bought the little boy with the crooked grin a lollipop.
  * simple indirect object = "boy"
  * complex indirect object = "the little boy with the crooked grin"

Examples

• She gave me the report.
  * Who received the report? "Me". So "Me" is the Indirect object.

• King Arthur put her sword on the table.
  * King Arthur is the subject; "put" is the verb; the sword is the direct object; the table is the indirect object.

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