"Омонимы и синонимы в английском языке" (в рамках проектной работы группы)

Content

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………..3

Results of test……………………………………………………………………………………………..4

Chapter 1 Interlanguage homonyms

1.1. What is an interlanguage homonyms?.....................................................6

1.2. Two types of homonyms

1.2.1. The first type of homonyms………………………………………………………..7

1.2.2. The second type of homonyms……………………………………………………8

1.3. Homonyms on writing…………………………………………………………………………..9

1.4. Coincidences consonance ………………………………………………………………….10

Chapter 2 Linguistic cognates

2.1. What is a linguistics cognates?..............................................................11

2.2. Cognates in unrelated languages……………………………………………………….12

Chapter 3 Causes of Cognates and homonyms

3.1. The main reasons………………………………………………………………………………14

3.2. The problem of cross-language homonymy………………………………………18

Chapter 4 Homonymy in language and worldview

4.1. The theory of homonyms ………………………………………………………………..20

4.2. 4.2. The occurrence of homonyms in the languages of the world……22

Conclusion………………………………………………………………..25

List of literature………………………………………………………….26

Introduction

Linguistics — science that studies languages. This is the science of natural human language in general, and all the world's languages as individual's representative. In a broad sense, linguistics is divided into scientific and practical. Most often, it is scientific Linguistics.

Over time, many languages were borrowed words and this creates problems in the study of one or more languages.

Now in our schools studied at least one foreign language and many note that there are many similar words. Most often, they have a completely different meaning, and this creates difficulties.

I have chosen this topic in order to understand how to make language learning easier and more accessible, and how to avoid problems in translation.

Results of test

By studying the topic «Interlanguage homonyms and linguistic cognates», I decided to ask my classmates if they know about interlanguage homonyms and linguistic cognates, watch they anywhere, use they anywhere, translate they, that’s why I made this test.

For this I asked 5 questions:

1. Have you ever listened and known the mean of the word «homonyms»?

2. Do you think this topic is important?

3. Do you have problems with learning words in English?

4. Have you ever listened to the same words in different languages?

5. Do you have problems with translation?

After results of the test I have known that:

1. The most of pupils didn’t listen and known the mean the word «homonyms».

2. The most of my classmates don’t think that this topic is important.

3. All my classmates ( 82 % ) have problems with learning words in English.

4. It’s very interesting to me that everybody in my class listened to the same words in different languages.

5. The most of my classmates have problems with translation.

Chapter 1

Interlanguage homonyms

1.1. What is an interlanguage homonyms?

Interlanguage homonyms — a couple of words in two languages, similar in spelling and / or pronunciation, often with a common origin, but differ in meaning. For example:

Polish «miasto» and Ukrainian «місто» — city, but not place;

False friends can lead to misunderstandings and translation. Some of them are formed due to the fact that after drawing the word in one of the languages change, in other cases, there were no borrowing and words come from a common root in some ancient language but have different values; consonance sometimes purely by chance.

A special case :

“psevdointernatsionalizmy” is interlanguage homonyms which is associated (in its graphics and / or phonetic form) with the words international vocabulary and causing all sorts of difficulties in translation: full or statements, the violation lexical or stylistic compatibility matching words in the utterance. Another special case of false friends are lexical units (words or phrases) that coincide in different languages in its internal form, but have completely different meanings:

English	German
High time ( пора делать что-либо )	Hochzeit ( wedding; свадьба )

1.2. Two types of homonyms

1.2.1. The first type of homonyms

The first type are homonyms with a completely different set of lexical meanings. They can be confused only because harmonies.

For Example:

Bulgarian «bulka» (bride)	Russian «Bulka» (bread products)
Japanese «kaban» (bag)	Russian «kaban» (name of the animal)
Spanish «Come» (eat)	Japanese «コ メ» (rice)
French «Comment?» (How?)	English «common»
Russian «Rossia» (Russia)	Japanese « 露西 亜» (road, blurred rain)

1.2.2. The second type of homonyms

Homonyms, some lexical values coincide fully or partly due to the existence of common features that make these words attributed to the data values in one field of using.

It is the latter case is associated with the highest number of errors in translation. For example, the English word «aggressive» has not only the value of "aggressive", but also " energetic." The coincidence of the first lexical meaning of the word «aggressive» with Russian lexical meaning "aggressive" can lead to the fact that, for example, when translating the phrase «aggressive salesman» the second meaning of the English word, which is not in Russian, is ignored and the phrase is translated as "aggressive seller " instead of the correct " persistent salesman. "

Another example. The word ««aggressive salesman» electric» in English means "electric", while sounding it coincides with the Russian "electrician". Both values are directly related to electricity, and the knowledge of this fact, while ignorance of the rules of word formation may cause confusion of meanings during the transfer.

1.3. Homonyms in writing

False friends in the writing systems can cause mispronunciation or incorrect transcription of foreign proper names and barbarisms, misuse, learning the rules of reading in other languages and other orthoepic errors.

In different languages or different systems of writing the same letter or the same combination of letters can be read in different ways.

For example, the letter «Ë», Russian language which represents "written in notes O" in Albanian read as [ə] («seam"), while in Latin, French, Dutch and some other languages, the same diacritical mark indicates that this letter is read by itself, and is not part of the digraph «AE», «IE» or «OE».

Ukrainian letter "G" is read as a voiced pharyngeal fricative, and explosive [g] in the Ukrainian language is indicated by the letter "Ghe with upturn." The letter "b" in Bulgarian language reads like a vowel sound between "O" and "N" and the letter "u" - as a combination of consonants "PCS". Polish digraph «SZ» pronounced "W", and one letter «S» - as "C"; in the Hungarian language - everything is exactly the opposite.

Differently in different languages and read digraph «CH»:

in English, Spanish and Galician - as "H", in French, Portuguese and Breton - as a "W" in German, Dutch, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Welsh, Irish and Gaelic - as "X", and in Italian, Catalan, Romanian and Moldovan - as "K". Just the Spanish «J» read as "X".

1.4. Coincidences consonance

Such coincidences are possible as in related and unrelated languages in Wengen. lány («girl" and not a "doe"), Italy. cravatta, it. Krawatte and Ukr. kravatka ("tie" and not a "bed"), Fin. pivo («handful" or "palm" and not "beer"), Japanese. 山 (uttering. Yama) («Mountain" and not "pit"), and so on. D.

Sometimes in closely related languages coincidences occur due to positional phonetic changes: Ukr. kіshka ("cat") made like Russian. intestine due to changes in the Ukrainian language vowel [o] in a closed syllable. Similarly, Ukr. kіt ("cat"), rather than Russian. Keith.

Chapter 2

Linguistic cognates

2.1. What is linguistic cognates?

Cognates - in linguistics under cognates understood cognates having a common origin and similar sounds in two or more distinct languages.

In this case, the semantic similarity cognates usually varies and is not completely the same, but because cognates are divided into complete (the minority) and partial (the majority). Cognates occur in the process of historical interaction between two or more languages. If neblizkorodstvennyh languages ​​(Russian and Moldovan / Romanian, French and English) cognates are the result of linguistic borrowing, in closely related languages ​​are often cognates Doublet. Engaged in the study of cognates etymology and semantics, and comparative linguistics.

There are some examples of cognates:

Spanish «Bien» and French «Bon» - «good»

Spanish «Como» and French «Comment» - «How?"

Spanish «norvoso» Russian and "nervous" - "nervous"

Japanese «パ ン» and Spanish «Pan» - «bread"

Spanish «Si» and Italian «Si» - «yes»

French «Parler» and Italian «Parlare» - «talk»

2.2. Cognates in unrelated languages

The use of written and oral Church Slavonic language as the language of worship and correspondence in the medieval Danubian principalities (Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania) led to massive borrowing from the Old Slavonic language in the speech of the local Roman population. Slavic borrowings in the Romanian language are mainly South Slavic (Bulgarian) origin, but have their cognates in Russian language, because it is closely related to Bulgarian. For the whole layers of Slavic borrowings and later added Russianisms, noticeable in the Moldovan language.

Avg. rum.- Mold .: «yes» and Russian «Da» they are

  "Jubilee» (iubi) and "liubit"

  "Chiti» (citi) and "chitat"

  "Dredges» (drag) and "drug" and others.

The dominance of Latin, Anglo-Norman and Anglo-French in medieval England XI-XIII centuries resulted in the formation layer significantly cognates in modern English (German-born) and Romanesque French and other Romance languages, creating a "lexical illusion" kinship of these languages with English.

Avg. Eng. pay from the French. payer «paying»

  Eng. city and fr. cité «city»

  Eng. stay and Spanish. estar «stay», «stop»

Nevertheless, Romance borrowings in the English language are rarely full cognates. The same English. city «metropolis", "business center" is different from the French. cité «town", "village". Moreover, the range of values of the same word as a rule in the source language is wider than the receiving language.

For example, in French the word «important (e)" is used in a qualitative (an important, high-level of the person), and the quantitative values (large, a significant amount of money).

In English loan word «important» is used only in a qualitative sense.

In addition, the frequency of borrowed verb «enter» less than that of native-German «come in»; and the style and frequency of the phrase «to suffuse" is not identical to the native phrase «to be enough».

Chapter 3

Causes of cognates and homonyms

3.1. Main causes

The value of the same words from Proto-languages descendants may develop in different directions, which eventually leads to discrepancies in its lexical meaning in a variety of closely related languages.

For Example,

Eng. mist - fog,

it. Mist - manure

This difference in value has led to embarrassment when exporting to Germany a computer game Myst, deodorant Mist Stick, as well as the Rolls Royce Silver Mist.

No less striking example - the word Gift, which in English means a gift or endowments, and German - a poison, a poison. Accordingly gifted in English is a gifted and German giftig is poisonous. The primary value of this all-German word - "something given".

In the process of historical development of lexical meaning of a word can expand or shrink.

Sometimes denotative meaning may remain the same, however, can vary its connotative meaning:

Pol. żyd is stylistically neutral word, while Russian. Jew is insulting and derogatory Dysphemism.

On the Proto-Slavic language the word * vonjati ( Russian. Stink) means "to smell." In Russian its meaning shifted to "smell bad", while in the West Slavic languages ​​(for example, in the Czech - Czech spirits - voňavka) it does not carry a negative meaning.

The original value in the Russian language remains in the words of smell (stink ob- +), smell, as well as staroslavyanizmy "incense" (pleasant odor), mainly used to describe the smell in the church and other places of worship. Also Ukrainian word "vrodlivy" (pronounced "ўrodlyvy") means "beautiful", and Russian consonant him "ugly" has the opposite meaning.

The same origin Polish word «uroda», which is translated into Russian as "beauty".

The appearance of homonyms in the language for various reasons:

1) The most common cause - a change in the phonetic system of language that led to the sound coincidences (eg, the emergence in England. Word night «Night» - knight «Knight" were homonyms in Old English period, since the initial k in the second word is pronounced (OE kniht) and only later the word has undergone phonetic changes and initial k has been omitted, as we see in the modern sound form of the word);

2) breaking the original single multi-valued semantics of the word, ie, disintegration of polysemy (Wed rus. light "radiant energy" and light "universe");

3) The derivation is also a source of growth of homonyms in the language:

Words are usually borrowed to give the names of some of the new concept. Often this is a new concept arises from the secondary value of the borrowed term.

4) borrowing words (Wed marriage "flaw", borrowed from the German Brack «defective product, the lack of" through Poland and marriage "marriage" from Russian. Take)

5) random coincidences (Wed rus. Key "spring", etymological connection with the verb bubble and key "metallic device lock" - with the noun hock).

All of the above sources of the homonyms have one important thing in common.

In all the above cases, homonyms develop from one or more different words and their similarity by chance. (In this regard, a conversion is an exception, as in this case, one word homonymous pair formed from the other).

We went to one more source of education homonyms, which is different from all previous ones. Two or more homonyms can be formed from different values of the same words, when for some reason the semantic structure of the word is divided into several parts.

This type of appearance is called homonyms decay polysemy. As discussed in the previous chapter, the semantic structure of the polysemous words is a system in which all its components values are related to each other in a logical association.

In most cases, the features and the cohesion components is determined by one of the values (the "flame" in the word "fire").

If it happens that this value will disappear from the semantic structure of the word, the relationship between the values ​​of the other components can be broken, semantic structure loses connectivity and is divided into two or more parts, which are then perceived as independent lexical units.

Trace the history of any of the following homonyms:

Board, n. - A long, thin piece of timber

Board, n. - Daily meal, often referred to in the payment,

e. g. room and board

Board, n. - The official group that manages and monitors any activity, e. g. a board of directors.

The values ​​of the above words not associated with each other. Although, most dictionaries include the value of board as a unifying all other values ​​"table".

It was formed from the value "of the timber" means of transport, based on contiguity (Association of the object and the material from which it is made) What is this phenomenon? - Metonymy.

The values ​​of "food" and "official group of people" evolved from the value of "table", and through the transfer of contiguity: the food is often associated with a table on which it is served; the official group of people often holds business meetings at the round table.

It should, however, be noted that the collapse of polysemy as a source of education homonyms not accepted by some scholars.

In fact, sometimes it is very difficult to decide whether we are dealing with different meanings of the same word or homonyms.

3.2. The problem of cross-language homonymy

The problem of cross-language synonymy emerged recently as some decades ago - in connection with the development of means of communication and a sharp increase in the scale of communication, globalization of communication, so to speak, in the modern world.

Every day a person is faced with a variety of foreign languages - on goods, borrowing language, interpersonal contacts.

It is on this basis, there are new, unknown hitherto systemic relationship between language systems, which finds its expression in the considered subject interlingual homonyms. There is a mixture - and offset - the values in the practice of the language person.

Breakdown in communication does not occur, as interlingual homonymy even less systemic than the "regular" homonymy, and minimal context enough to relieve this problem.

But you should pay attention to the following: as mentioned above, homonymy is for the language game - it is not surprising that interlingual homonymy also comes into this area.

For example, the advertising campaign of a healthy lifestyle in the youth magazine "Om" is based on simple interlingual homonyms "friend / drug", And "friend" = life, and placed on the top half of the light sheet, and English.

"Drug" (narcotic) = Death, and placed on the lower half black.

There is also historical evidence of anecdotal cases of interlingual homonymy: in 18th century Russia servant, giving his wife of the French ambassador after taking her cloak, said, wanting to please, "your cloak," for which he immediately received a slap in the face and found guilty of insulting a lady.

The thing is that this phrase in French means "dirty cow." French servant did not know ... The scandal was hushed up.

This historical anecdote proves that the phenomenon of cross-language homonyms always existed - it just did not pay attention, it served as a nuisance or a funny coincidence.

Chapter 4

Homonymy in the language and worldview

4.1. Theory of homonyms

Even a cursory look at the problem suggests a great theoretical significance of the phenomenon of homonyms for linguistic science, which is that in the language system, based on the differences.

There are elements that come together in a relationship of identity contrary, if I may say so, the language system - semantic development is not supported by a formal difference that leads to failures in the implementation of the most important functions of language and communication category.

Homonyms are important systemic importance, "the abundance of homonyms, especially when prevalence odnomorfemnyh and monosyllables, promotes musical stress ...

This is the way typology is permissible to explain the origin of the musical stress in Chinese.

There is another aspect of homonyms - on the theory Yu.S.Stepanova homonyms are the simplest system grouping vocabulary of the language.

Here, it seems, comes to the fore is not linguistic, psychological and personality, for which the identity, unity, integrity is an important characteristic of existence.

Thus, homonymy in a language picture of the world can really be considered as one of the ways of her ordering.

And the method is very popular - witness the "folk etymology" back etymologically and phenomenologically associates two independent words.

The importance of this issue indicates A. V. Fedorov: "Transfer of wordplay and folk etymologies - a very specific case in the field of translation, but at the same time - an interesting case in principle in a practical way by the special difficulty of the task, and in the theoretical plane - for extreme brightness ratio between the formal category (homonymous identity or similarity of the words) and its semantic, ultimately, shaped in the context of the use. "

A. V. Fedorov

When comparative analysis of the phenomenon of homonyms in different languages for system detected an interesting linguistic facts. We are interested primarily in the nature of homonyms, and how to enter it in the language of your system, what the language means , used to neutralize possible communicative "abkoitusa."

4.2. The occurrence of homonyms in the languages of the world

For the French language is characterized by an abundance of homophones as actual speech-homonyms, which is associated with the historical phonetics of the French language.

Among homophones there are those who, etymologically different words, are sharply divided on the content. For example, «le tour» - "circular motion, circle, circle around" and «la tour» - "tower, a tower; Rook. "

Of course, the race is not the only means of distinguishing the homonyms, there already come into force spelling - and how can you not remember some researchers that bring the genius of Shakespeare and his subtle linguistic flair to a simple lack of spelling in his time.

As an example, lead Shakespearean word in modern spelling broke up into 2 separate: metal and mettle, «metal" and "hot", respectively. This is generally one of the most striking characteristics of English and French with their traditional and very ancient orthography.

From close and clear to us examples of Indo-European languages, created entirely within the European linguists same theory as the decay of homonymy polysemy, we turn to the material languages other systems.

Historical development of phonetics led to the formation of a huge number of homophones in Chinese.

As you can see, each of the series of homophones is the only difference in the form of a determinative - element of the character, tradition associates with the word-sign of a certain kind of material or spiritual objects nomination.

Nevertheless, in spite of homophones and extreme graphic and semantic proximity, we have two different words - and only because we have two different characters in each row.

How to determine the type of system the opposition, which is entered into such linguistic signs? There is no full paronymy since their syntactic distribution and values ​​are identical.

Cannot be attributed to them, and graphics options, as in Chinese dictionaries, they still represented by different vocables, each with its own value. Thus, it is not covered by the existing theory of homonyms.

Here we come to what is traditionally extralinguistic (Europe) level of graphics plays in structuring and the existence of the Chinese text completely different role, on a scale unparalleled with its role in the European text.

In the prevailing ideographic nature of Chinese writing semantic differences of similar meaning words are expressed in a different graphic image, ie, "Characters on the letter" decode "those subtle semantic differences that can not be expressed in the sound of speech."

Extremely interesting article, which is devoted to the study of cultural connotations graphics favor of the Chinese writing Japanese.

It is there another 2 syllabary national letter - a very special phenomenon, the essence of which is as follows: in the history of Japanese culture, these ABC owned one for men and one for women, and in the development of each of them later acquired unique, peculiar only to her cultural and semantic characteristics and connotations.

Thus, the transition in the spelling of a word from one alphabet to the other bears no stylistic and lexical-semantic functions, and even extra-linguistic.

Closer us an example: still not clear functional features Glagolitic before Cyrillic - hypotheses multiply rivalry brothers to the sacred nature of the Glagolitic. A long dispute, voluminous research on the relationship of these alphabets are still far from complete.

This is prevented as a lack of purely historical material - no evidence of the authors or any of their surroundings - so and found the installation of modern research on purely linguistic examination of the problem that is fundamentally wrong in relation to the type of culture in which there was an act of creation because it was a time of high mythological and religious consciousness.

Very different in their properties and generated picture of the world on our own, modern, albeit no less mythological, but still fundamentally different.

Thus, the already complex phenomenon of homonyms even more complicated when referring to the Chinese and Japanese material, adding new levels to explore - graphical dimension text.

Conclusion

After getting acquainted with the topic "Interlanguage homonyms and linguistic cognates" I came to the following conclusions:

• Interlanguage homonyms — a couple of words in two languages, similar in spelling and / or pronunciation, often with a common origin, but differ in meaning.

• There are two types of homonyms.

• Cognates - in linguistics under cognates understood cognates having a common origin and similar sounds in two or more distinct languages.

• Cognates can be even in unrelated languages.

• There are several reasons of origin homonyms and cognates.

List of literature

http://mosyagin.narod.ru/dip/d1.htm#top

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8C%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0#.D0.98.D0.B7.D0.BC.D0.B5.D0.BD.D0.B5.D0.BD.D0.B8.D0.B5_.D0.B7.D0.BD.D0.B0.D1.87.D0.B5.D0.BD.D0.B8.D1.8F_.D1.81.D0.BB.D0.BE.D0.B2.D0.B0_.D0.BF.D1.80.D0.B8_.D0.B7.D0.B0.D0.B8.D0.BC.D1.81.D1.82.D0.B2.D0.BE.D0.B2.D0.B0.D0.BD.D0.B8.D0.B8

А. В. Фёдоров « Основы общей теории перевода. Лингвистические проблемы ».

http://studopedia.ru/1_129648_prichini-poyavleniya-v-yazike-omonimov.html

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